Extracellular Vesicle (EVs) Associated Non-Coding RNAs in Lung Cancer and Therapeutics

Non-coding RNA in exosomes: Regulating bone metastasis of lung cancer and its clinical application prospect

Lung cancer is a highly prevalent malignancy with poor prognosis and rapid progression. It most frequently metastasizes to the bone, where it can pose a severe threat to the patient's survival. Once metastasized, the disease is often incurable and can result in severe complications such as hypercalcemia, bone pain, fractures, spinal cord compression, and subsequent paralysis. Exosomes are bilayer vesicle nanoparticles secreted by most of the extracellular vesicles, which can be found in almost all organisms and play an essential role in intercellular communication. Through their ability to regulate related bone cells, exosomes carry bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), that can be extremely important in bone remodeling. Studies have been conducted on the role play by proteins, lncRNA, and microRNA-all ncRNAs-carried by exosomes in the bone metastases of lung cancer. In this review, the latest progress of the regulatory mechanism of ncRNAs carried by exosomes in lung cancer bone metastasis has been reviewed. The clinical use of exosomes as a promising biomarker, drug transporter, and therapeutic target was highlighted to offer a novel diagnostic and treatment approach for patients with lung cancer bone metastases.

Comprehensive review for non-coding RNAs: From mechanisms to therapeutic applications

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are an assorted collection of transcripts that are not translated into proteins. Since their discovery, ncRNAs have gained prominence as crucial regulators of various biological functions across diverse cell types and tissues, and their abnormal functioning has been implicated in disease. Notably, extensive research has focused on the relationship between microRNAs (miRNAs) and human cancers, although other types of ncRNAs, such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), are also emerging as significant contributors to human disease. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of our current knowledge regarding the roles of miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs in cancer and other major human diseases, particularly cancer, cardiovascular, neurological, and infectious diseases. Moreover, we discuss the potential utilization of ncRNAs as disease biomarkers and as targets for therapeutic interventions.

Physio-chemical Modifications to Re-engineer Small Extracellular Vesicles for Targeted Anticancer Therapeutics Delivery and Imaging

Cancer theranostics developed through nanoengineering applications are essential for targeted oncologic interventions in the new era of personalized and precision medicine. Recently, small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have emerged as an attractive nanoengineering platform for tumor-directed anticancer therapeutic delivery and imaging of malignant tumors. These natural nanoparticles have multiple advantages over synthetic nanoparticle-based delivery systems, such as intrinsic targeting ability, less immunogenicity, and a prolonged circulation time. Since the inception of sEVs as a viable replacement for liposomes (synthetic nanoparticles) as a drug delivery vehicle, many studies have attempted to further the therapeutic efficacy of sEVs. This article discusses engineering strategies for sEVs using physical and chemical methods to enhance their anticancer therapeutic delivery performance. We review physio-chemical techniques of effective therapeutic loading into sEV, sEV surface engineering for targeted entry of therapeutics, and its cancer environment sensitive release inside the cells/organ. Next, we also discuss the novel hybrid sEV systems developed by a combination of sEVs with lipid and metal nanoparticles to garner each component's benefits while overcoming their drawbacks. The article extensively analyzes multiple sEV labeling techniques developed and investigated for live tracking or imaging sEVs. Finally, we discuss the theranostic potential of engineered sEVs in future cancer care regimens.

Lung Cancer Cell-Derived Exosome Detection Using Electrochemical Approach towards Early Cancer Screening

Lung cancer is one of the deadliest cancers worldwide due to the inability of existing methods for early diagnosis. Tumor-derived exosomes are nano-scale vesicles released from tumor cells to the extracellular environment, and their investigation can be very useful in both biomarkers for early cancer screening and treatment assessment. This research detected the exosomes via an ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor containing gold nano-islands (Au-NIs) structures. This way, a high surface-area-to-volume ratio of nanostructures was embellished on the FTO electrodes to increase the chance of immobilizing the CD-151 antibody. In this way, a layer of gold was first deposited on the electrode by physical vapor deposition (PVD), followed by thermal annealing to construct primary gold seeds on the surface of the electrode. Then, gold seeds were grown by electrochemical deposition through gold salt. The cell-derived exosomes were successfully immobilized on the FTO electrode through the CD-151 antibody, and cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) methods were used in this research. In the CV method, the change in the current passing through the working electrode is measured so that the connection of exosomes causes the current to decrease. In the EIS method, surface resistance changes were investigated so that the binding of exosomes increased the surface resistance. Various concentrations of exosomes in both cell culture and blood serum samples were measured to test the sensitivity of the biosensor, which makes our biosensor capable of detecting 20 exosomes per milliliter.

Tumor Cells Transmit Drug Resistance via Cisplatin-Induced Extracellular Vesicles

Cisplatin is a first-line clinical agent used for treating solid tumors. Cisplatin damages the DNA of tumor cells and induces the production of high levels of reactive oxygen species to achieve tumor killing. Tumor cells have evolved several ways to tolerate this damage. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are an important mode of information transfer in tumor cells. EVs can be substantially activated under cisplatin treatment and mediate different responses of tumor cells under cisplatin treatment depending on their different cargoes. However, the mechanism of action of tumor-cell-derived EVs under cisplatin treatment and their potential cargoes are still unclear. This review considers recent advances in cisplatin-induced release of EVs from tumor cells, with the expectation of providing a new understanding of the mechanisms of cisplatin treatment and drug resistance, as well as strategies for the combined use of cisplatin and other drugs.

Metabolic biomarkers in lung cancer screening and early diagnosis (Review)

Late diagnosis is one of the major contributing factors to the high mortality rate of lung cancer, which is now the leading cause of cancer-associated mortality worldwide. At present, low-dose CT (LDCT) screening in the high-risk population, in which lung cancer incidence is higher than that of the low-risk population is the predominant diagnostic strategy. Although this has efficiently reduced lung cancer mortality in large randomized trials, LDCT screening has high false-positive rates, resulting in excessive subsequent follow-up procedures and radiation exposure. Complementation of LDCT examination with biofluid-based biomarkers has been documented to increase efficacy, and this type of preliminary screening can potentially reduce potential radioactive damage to low-risk populations and the burden of hospital resources. Several molecular signatures based on components of the biofluid metabolome that can possibly discriminate patients with lung cancer from healthy individuals have been proposed over the past two decades. In the present review, advancements in currently available technologies in metabolomics were reviewed, with particular focus on their possible application in lung cancer screening and early detection.

Air Pollution: Role of Extracellular Vesicles-Derived Non-Coding RNAs in Environmental Stress Response

Air pollution has increased over the years, causing a negative impact on society due to the many health-related problems it can contribute to. Although the type and extent of air pollutants are known, the molecular mechanisms underlying the induction of negative effects on the human body remain unclear. Emerging evidence suggests the crucial involvement of different molecular mediators in inflammation and oxidative stress in air pollution-induced disorders. Among these, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) carried by extracellular vesicles (EVs) may play an essential role in gene regulation of the cell stress response in pollutant-induced multiorgan disorders. This review highlights EV-transported ncRNAs' roles in physiological and pathological conditions, such as the development of cancer and respiratory, neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular diseases following exposure to various environmental stressors.

Cigarette smoking induces lung cancer tumorigenesis via upregulation of the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway

Lung cancer has the highest mortality rate compared to any other cancer worldwide, and cigarette smoking is one of the major etiological factors. How cigarette smoke (CS) induces tumorigenesis in healthy cells is still not completely understood. In this study, we treated healthy human bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE14o) with 1 % cigarette smoke extract (CSE) for one week. The CSE exposed cells showed upregulation of WNT/β-catenin pathway genes like WNT3, DLV3, AXIN and β-catenin, 30 oncology proteins were found to be upregulated after CSE treatment. Further, we explored whether the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) obtained from CSE exposed cells can induce tumorigenesis. We observed that CSE EVs induced migration of healthy 16HBE14o cells by upregulation of various oncology proteins in recipient cells like AXL, EGFR, DKK1, ENG, FGF2, ICAM1, HMOX1, HIF1a, SERPINE1, SNAIL, HGFR, PLAU which are related to WNT signaling, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) and Inflammation, whereas inflammatory marker, GAL-3 and EMT marker, VIM were downregulated. Moreover, β-catenin RNA was found in CSE EVs, upon treatment of these EVs to healthy cells, the β-catenin gene level was decreased in recipient cells compared to healthy 16HBE14o cells, indicating the utilisation of β-catenin RNA in healthy cells. Overall, our study suggests that CS treatment can induce tumorigenesis of healthy cells by upregulating WNT/β-catenin signaling in vitro and human lung cancer patients. Therefore targeting the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway is involved in tumorigenesis inhibition of this pathway could be a potential therapeutic approach for cigarette smoke induced lung cancer.

The significance of the crosstalk between ubiquitination or deubiquitination and ncRNAs in non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer (LC) remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, with extremely high morbidity and mortality rates. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most critical type of LC. It seriously threatens the life and health of patients because of its early metastasis, late clinical symptoms, limited early screening methods, and poor treatment outcomes. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), participate in cell proliferation, metastasis, and chemoresistance. Several previous studies have proven that ncRNAs are vital regulators of tumorigenesis. Ubiquitination plays the most crucial role in protein post-translational modification (PTM). Deubiquitination and ubiquitination form a homeostasis. In summary, ubiquitination and deubiquitination play essential roles in mediating the degradation or overexpression of a range of crucial proteins in various cancers. A growing number of researchers have found that interactions between ncRNAs and ubiquitination (or deubiquitination) play a crucial role in NSCLC. This review presents several typical examples of the important effects of ncRNAs and ubiquitination (or deubiquitination) in NSCLC, aiming to provide more creative ideas for exploring the diagnosis and treatment of NSCLC.

Advances in Purification, Modification, and Application of Extracellular Vesicles for Novel Clinical Treatments

Extracellular vesicles (EV) are membrane vesicles surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane and include microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, exosomes, and exomeres. Exosome-encapsulated microRNAs (miRNAs) released from cancer cells are involved in the proliferation and metastasis of tumor cells via angiogenesis. On the other hand, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy, which is being employed in regenerative medicine owing to the ability of MSCs to differentiate into various cells, is due to humoral factors, including messenger RNA (mRNA), miRNAs, proteins, and lipids, which are encapsulated in exosomes derived from transplanted cells. New treatments that advocate cell-free therapy using MSC-derived exosomes will significantly improve clinical practice. Therefore, using highly purified exosomes that perform their original functions is desirable. In this review, we summarized advances in the purification, modification, and application of EVs as novel strategies to treat some diseases.

Mechanism of Extracellular Vesicle Secretion Associated with TGF-β-Dependent Inflammatory Response in the Tumor Microenvironment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve as central mediators in communication between tumor and non-tumor cells. These interactions are largely dependent on the function of the endothelial barrier and the set of receptors present on its surface, as endothelial cells (ECs) are a plenteous source of EVs. The molecular basis for EV secretion and action in the tumor microenvironment (TME) has not been fully elucidated to date. Emerging evidence suggests a prominent role of inflammatory pathways in promoting tumor progression and metastasis. Although transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is a cytokine with strong immunomodulatory and protective activity in benign and early-stage cancer cells, it plays a pro-tumorigenic role in advanced cancer cells, which is known as the "TGF-β paradox". Thus, the aim of this review is to describe the correlation between EV release, TGF-β-dependent inflammation, and dysregulation of downstream TGF-β signaling in the context of cancer development.

Treatment with EV-miRNAs Alleviates Obesity-Associated Metabolic Dysfunction in Mice

Most cells release extracellular vesicles (EVs) that can be detected circulating in blood. We and others have shown that the microRNA contents of these vesicles induce transcriptomic changes in acceptor cells, contributing to the adjustment of metabolic homeostasis in response to environmental demands. Here, we explore the potential for modulating obesity- and exercise-derived EV-microRNAs to treat the metabolic dysfunction associated with obesity in mice. Treatment with EV-miRNAs alleviated glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in obese mice to an extent similar to that of high-intensity interval training, although only exercise improved cardiorespiratory fitness and decreased body weight. Mechanistically, EV-miRNAs decreased fatty acid and cholesterol biosynthesis pathways in the liver, reducing hepatic steatosis and increasing insulin sensitivity, resulting in decreased glycemia and triglyceridemia. Our data suggest that manipulation of EV-miRNAs may be a viable strategy to alleviate metabolic dysfunction in obese and diabetic patients who are unable to exercise, although actual physical activity is needed to improve cardiorespiratory fitness.