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Costa A, Forte IM, Pentimalli F, Iannuzzi CA, Alfano L, Capone F, Camerlingo R, Calabrese A, von Arx C, Benot Dominguez R, Quintiliani M, De Laurentiis M, Morrione A, Giordano A. Pharmacological inhibition of CDK4/6 impairs diffuse pleural mesothelioma 3D spheroid growth and reduces viability of cisplatin-resistant cells. Front Oncol 2024; 14:1418951. [PMID: 39011477 PMCID: PMC11246887 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2024.1418951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Diffuse pleural mesothelioma (DPM) of the pleura is a highly aggressive and treatment-resistant cancer linked to asbestos exposure. Despite multimodal treatment, the prognosis for DPM patients remains very poor, with an average survival of 2 years from diagnosis. Cisplatin, a platinum-based chemotherapy drug, is commonly used in the treatment of DPM. However, the development of resistance to cisplatin significantly limits its effectiveness, highlighting the urgent need for alternative therapeutic strategies. New selective inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6 (CDK4/6) have shown promise in various malignancies by inhibiting cell cycle progression and suppressing tumor growth. Recent studies have indicated the potential of abemaciclib for DPM therapy, and a phase II clinical trial has shown preliminary encouraging results. Methods Here, we tested abemaciclib, palbociclib, and ribociclib on a panel of DPM cell lines and non-tumor mesothelial(MET-5A) cells. Results Specifically, we focused on abemaciclib, which was the mosteffective cytotoxic agent on all the DPM cell lines tested. Abemaciclib reduced DPM cell viability, clonogenic potential, and ability to grow as three-dimensional (3D) spheroids. In addition, abemaciclib induced prolonged effects, thereby impairing second-generation sphere formation and inducing G0/G1 arrest and apoptosis/ necrosis. Interestingly, single silencing of RB family members did not impair cell response to abemaciclib, suggesting that they likely complement each other in triggering abemaciclib's cytostatic effect. Interestingly, abemaciclib reduced the phosphorylation of AKT, which is hyperactive in DPM and synergized with the pharmacological AKT inhibitor (AKTi VIII). Abemaciclib also synergized with cisplatin and reduced the viability of DPM cells with acquired resistance to cisplatin. Discussion Overall, our results suggest that CDK4/6 inhibitors alone or in combination with standard of care should be further explored for DPM therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora Costa
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Iris Maria Forte
- Experimental ClinicalOncology of Breast Unit, Department of Breast and Thoracic Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori IRCCS "Fondazione G. Pascale", Naples, Italy
| | - Francesca Pentimalli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, LUM University "Giuseppe De Gennaro", Bari, Italy
| | - Carmelina Antonella Iannuzzi
- Experimental ClinicalOncology of Breast Unit, Department of Breast and Thoracic Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori IRCCS "Fondazione G. Pascale", Naples, Italy
| | - Luigi Alfano
- Experimental ClinicalOncology of Breast Unit, Department of Breast and Thoracic Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori IRCCS "Fondazione G. Pascale", Naples, Italy
| | - Francesca Capone
- Experimental Pharmacology Unit-Laboratories of Naples andMercogliano (AV), Istituto Nazionale Tumori IRCCS "Fondazione G. Pascale", Naples, Italy
| | - Rosa Camerlingo
- Cell Biology and Biotherapy Unit, Istituto Nazionale Tumori, IRCCS, Fondazione G. Pascale, Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandra Calabrese
- Experimental ClinicalOncology of Breast Unit, Department of Breast and Thoracic Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori IRCCS "Fondazione G. Pascale", Naples, Italy
| | - Claudia von Arx
- Experimental ClinicalOncology of Breast Unit, Department of Breast and Thoracic Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori IRCCS "Fondazione G. Pascale", Naples, Italy
| | - Reyes Benot Dominguez
- Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | | | - Michelino De Laurentiis
- Experimental ClinicalOncology of Breast Unit, Department of Breast and Thoracic Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori IRCCS "Fondazione G. Pascale", Naples, Italy
| | - Andrea Morrione
- Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Antonio Giordano
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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Mao QY, Wang XQ, Lin F, Yu MW, Fan HT, Zheng Q, Liu LC, Zhang CC, Li DR, Lin HS. Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko Inhibit Lung Cancer Growth and Metastasis by Ameliorating Hypoxic Tumor Microenvironment via PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α Signaling Pathway. Chin J Integr Med 2024:10.1007/s11655-024-3803-8. [PMID: 38850481 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-024-3803-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate whether Buthus martensii karsch (Scorpiones), Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans L. Koch (Scolopendra) and Gekko gecko Linnaeus (Gekko) could ameliorate the hypoxic tumor microenvironment and inhibit lung cancer growth and metastasis by regulating phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin/hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α) signaling pathway. METHODS Male C57BL/6J mice were inoculated with luciferase labeled LL/2-luc-M38 cell suspension to develop lung cancer models, with rapamycin and cyclophosphamide as positive controls. Carboxy methyl cellulose solutions of Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko were administered intragastrically as 0.33, 0.33, and 0.83 g/kg, respectively once daily for 21 days. Fluorescent expression were detected every 7 days after inoculation, and tumor growth curves were plotted. Immunohistochemistry was performed to determine CD31 and HIF-1α expressions in tumor tissue and microvessel density (MVD) was analyzed. Western blot was performed to detect the expression of PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α signaling pathway-related proteins. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was performed to detect serum basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in mice. RESULTS Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko prolonged the survival time and inhibited lung cancer metastasis and expression of HIF-1α (all P<0.01). Moreover, Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko inhibited the phosphorylation of AKT and ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K) (P<0.05 or P<0.01). In addition, they also decreased the expression of CD31, MVD, bFGF, TGF-β1 and VEGF compared with the model group (P<0.05 or P<0.01). CONCLUSION Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko all showed beneficial effects on lung cancer by ameliorating the hypoxic tumor microenvironment via PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Yuan Mao
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Xue-Qian Wang
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Fei Lin
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Ming-Wei Yu
- Department of Oncology, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100010, China
| | - Hui-Ting Fan
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Qi Zheng
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Lan-Chun Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Chu-Chu Zhang
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine Information, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Dao-Rui Li
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China.
| | - Hong-Sheng Lin
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
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Rahmani R, Eivazi N, Emamgholipour S, Aminian M, Jalilian A, Paknejad M. The obeticholic acid can positively regulate the cancerous behavior of MCF7 breast cancer cell line. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:250. [PMID: 38302816 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-09106-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The diagnosis and treatment processes of cancer are among the main challenges of medical science in recent decades. The use of different therapeutic agents is one of the most common methods frequently utilized for cancer treatment. Accumulating evidence points to a potential effect of Obeticholic acid (OCA), a specific ligand for farnesoid X receptor, on the regulation of cancer-associated pathways. In spite of tremendous efforts to introduce OCA into the clinical setting, there is a great deal of uncertainty about its impact on breast cancer treatment. This study was performed to evaluate the effects of OCA on breast cancer. METHODS AND RESULTS In this experiment, the MCF-7 (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7) cell line was treated with 0.1 µM OCA, and cancerous characteristics of the MCF-7 cell line was evaluated by the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2 H-tetrazolium bromide) assay, gelatin zymography, western blot, Real-time PCR, flow cytometry, and ELISA techniques. The results indicated that OCA increased the rate of apoptosis and the expression levels of PPARα (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha) and TIMP-1 (tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1) genes in this cell line, while it reduced the mRNA levels of MMP7 (matrix metalloproteinase 7) and Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma 2) genes, as well as the protein levels of the active form of AKT (protein kinase B), Erk1/2 (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2) and STAT3 (Signal transducers and activators of transcription-3). Also, OCA decreased the activity of MMP9, while it increased the secretion of VEGF-A (vascular endothelial growth factor-A). CONCLUSIONS It seems that OCA can exert anti-cancer effects on the MCF-7 cells by reducing growth, proliferation, migration, invasion, and regulation of the expression of genes involved in cancer-associated pathways. However, it should be noted that further studies are warranted to establish this concept, especially the increase of VEGF-A can be considered a challenge for the results of this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reza Rahmani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Neda Eivazi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Solaleh Emamgholipour
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Metabolic Disorders Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Molecular-Cellular Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahdi Aminian
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Jalilian
- Department of plant secondary metabolites, Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran-Isfahan Branch, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Isfahan, Iran
| | - Maliheh Paknejad
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Glaviano A, Foo ASC, Lam HY, Yap KCH, Jacot W, Jones RH, Eng H, Nair MG, Makvandi P, Geoerger B, Kulke MH, Baird RD, Prabhu JS, Carbone D, Pecoraro C, Teh DBL, Sethi G, Cavalieri V, Lin KH, Javidi-Sharifi NR, Toska E, Davids MS, Brown JR, Diana P, Stebbing J, Fruman DA, Kumar AP. PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling transduction pathway and targeted therapies in cancer. Mol Cancer 2023; 22:138. [PMID: 37596643 PMCID: PMC10436543 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-023-01827-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 143.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The PI3K/AKT/mTOR (PAM) signaling pathway is a highly conserved signal transduction network in eukaryotic cells that promotes cell survival, cell growth, and cell cycle progression. Growth factor signalling to transcription factors in the PAM axis is highly regulated by multiple cross-interactions with several other signaling pathways, and dysregulation of signal transduction can predispose to cancer development. The PAM axis is the most frequently activated signaling pathway in human cancer and is often implicated in resistance to anticancer therapies. Dysfunction of components of this pathway such as hyperactivity of PI3K, loss of function of PTEN, and gain-of-function of AKT, are notorious drivers of treatment resistance and disease progression in cancer. In this review we highlight the major dysregulations in the PAM signaling pathway in cancer, and discuss the results of PI3K, AKT and mTOR inhibitors as monotherapy and in co-administation with other antineoplastic agents in clinical trials as a strategy for overcoming treatment resistance. Finally, the major mechanisms of resistance to PAM signaling targeted therapies, including PAM signaling in immunology and immunotherapies are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonino Glaviano
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Aaron S C Foo
- Department of Surgery, National University Hospital Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hiu Y Lam
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore
- NUS Centre for Cancer Research (N2CR), Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 119077, Singapore
| | - Kenneth C H Yap
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore
- NUS Centre for Cancer Research (N2CR), Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 119077, Singapore
| | - William Jacot
- Department of Medical Oncology, Institut du Cancer de Montpellier, Inserm U1194, Montpellier University, Montpellier, France
| | - Robert H Jones
- Cardiff University and Velindre Cancer Centre, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Huiyan Eng
- Department of Surgery, National University Hospital Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore
| | - Madhumathy G Nair
- Division of Molecular Medicine, St. John's Research Institute, St. John's Medical College, Bangalore, 560034, India
| | - Pooyan Makvandi
- The Quzhou Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Quzhou People's Hospital, Quzhou, 324000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Birgit Geoerger
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Oncology, Gustave Roussy Cancer Center, Inserm U1015, Université Paris-Saclay, Paris, France
| | - Matthew H Kulke
- Section of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Richard D Baird
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Centre, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Jyothi S Prabhu
- Division of Molecular Medicine, St. John's Research Institute, St. John's Medical College, Bangalore, 560034, India
| | - Daniela Carbone
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Camilla Pecoraro
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Daniel B L Teh
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, and Neurobiology Programme, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Surgery, National University Hospital Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore
| | - Vincenzo Cavalieri
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Kevin H Lin
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Eneda Toska
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Matthew S Davids
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jennifer R Brown
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Patrizia Diana
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Justin Stebbing
- Division of Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - David A Fruman
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, 216 Sprague Hall, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Alan P Kumar
- Department of Surgery, National University Hospital Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore.
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Sane S, Srinivasan R, Potts RA, Eikanger M, Zagirova D, Freeling J, Reihe CA, Antony RM, Gupta BK, Lynch D, Bleeker J, Turaihi H, Pillatzki A, Zhou W, Luo X, Linnebacher M, Agany D, Zohim EG, Humphrey LE, Black AR, Rezvani K. UBXN2A suppresses the Rictor-mTORC2 signaling pathway, an established tumorigenic pathway in human colorectal cancer. Oncogene 2023; 42:1763-1776. [PMID: 37037900 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-023-02686-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
The mTORC2 pathway plays a critical role in promoting tumor progression in human colorectal cancer (CRC). The regulatory mechanisms for this signaling pathway are only partially understood. We previously identified UBXN2A as a novel tumor suppressor protein in CRCs and hypothesized that UBXN2A suppresses the mTORC2 pathway, thereby inhibiting CRC growth and metastasis. We first used murine models to show that haploinsufficiency of UBXN2A significantly increases colon tumorigenesis. Induction of UBXN2A reduces AKT phosphorylation downstream of the mTORC2 pathway, which is essential for a plethora of cellular processes, including cell migration. Meanwhile, mTORC1 activities remain unchanged in the presence of UBXN2A. Mechanistic studies revealed that UBXN2A targets Rictor protein, a key component of the mTORC2 complex, for 26S proteasomal degradation. A set of genetic, pharmacological, and rescue experiments showed that UBXN2A regulates cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and colon cancer stem cells (CSCs) in CRC. CRC patients with a high level of UBXN2A have significantly better survival, and high-grade CRC tissues exhibit decreased UBXN2A protein expression. A high level of UBXN2A in patient-derived xenografts and tumor organoids decreases Rictor protein and suppresses the mTORC2 pathway. These findings provide new insights into the functions of an ubiquitin-like protein by inhibiting a dominant oncogenic pathway in CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanam Sane
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Rekha Srinivasan
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Rashaun A Potts
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Morgan Eikanger
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Diana Zagirova
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Jessica Freeling
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Casey A Reihe
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Ryan M Antony
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Brij K Gupta
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA
| | - Douglas Lynch
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Sanford School of Medicine, Sioux Falls, SD, USA
| | | | | | - Angela Pillatzki
- Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences Department, Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA
| | - Wei Zhou
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Xu Luo
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, Fred & Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, The University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Michael Linnebacher
- Department of General Surgery, Molecular Oncology and Immunotherapy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Diing Agany
- Biomedical Engineering Department, GEAR Center, Sioux Falls, SD, USA
| | | | - Lisa E Humphrey
- Tissue Sciences, Eppley Institute for Cancer Research, The University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Adrian R Black
- Tissue Sciences, Eppley Institute for Cancer Research, The University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Khosrow Rezvani
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Lee Medical Building, Vermillion, SD, USA.
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