Newly Isolated Virulent Salmophages for Biocontrol of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella in Ready-to-Eat Plant-Based Food

Phenotypic Characterization and Genome Analysis of New Broad-Spectrum Virulent Salmophage, Salmonella Phage KKP_3822, for Biocontrol of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella enterica Strains

Salmonella is one of the main foodborne pathogens. Irrational antibiotic management has led to an increase in the incidence of multidrug-resistant strains. Bacteriophages may be an alternative method of food biopreservation and contribute to reducing the number of food poisonings requiring pharmacotherapy. This study aimed to isolate a bacteriophage (phage) targeting indigenous multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella strains, followed by their biological, morphological, and genomic characterization. In this study we isolated Salmonella phage KKP_3822, targeting MDR Salmonella Manchester strain KKP 1213. Salmonella phage KKP_3822 retained high activity in the temperature range from -20 °C to 40 °C and active acidity from pH 3 to 11. Temperatures of 70 °C and 80 °C and extreme pH values (2 and 12) significantly reduced the phage titer. Its activity decreased proportionally to the time of UV exposure. Genome analysis (linear dsDNA with a length of 114,843 bp) revealed the presence of 27 tRNA genes. Proteins encoded by the vB_Sen-IAFB3822 phage were divided into functional modules related to (i) phage structure/assembly, (ii) DNA replication/modification/regulation, (iii) phage lysis, and (iv) DNA packaging into the capsid. No genes associated with antibiotic resistance or integration into the host genome, markers of temperate bacteriophages, were annotated in the Salmonella phage KKP_3822 genome. Based on morphological features and whole-genome sequence analysis, the newly isolated Salmonella phage KKP_3822 shows the greatest similarity to representatives of tailed phages from the Caudoviricetes class, Demerecviridae family, and Epseptimavirus genus. Genome analysis confirmed the virulent nature of the Salmonella phage KKP_3822, making it a potential candidate for food biocontrol.

Comprehensive Approaches to Combatting Acinetobacter baumannii Biofilms: From Biofilm Structure to Phage-Based Therapies

Acinetobacter baumannii-a multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogen that causes, for example, skin and soft tissue wounds; urinary tract infections; pneumonia; bacteremia; and endocarditis, particularly due to its ability to form robust biofilms-poses a significant challenge in clinical settings. This structure protects the bacteria from immune responses and antibiotic treatments, making infections difficult to eradicate. Given the rise in antibiotic resistance, alternative therapeutic approaches are urgently needed. Bacteriophage-based strategies have emerged as a promising solution for combating A. baumannii biofilms. Phages, which are viruses that specifically infect bacteria, offer a targeted and effective means of disrupting biofilm and lysing bacterial cells. This review explores the current advancements in bacteriophage therapy, focusing on its potential for treating A. baumannii biofilm-related infections. We described the mechanisms by which phages interact with biofilms, the challenges in phage therapy implementation, and the strategies being developed to enhance its efficacy (phage cocktails, engineered phages, combination therapies with antibiotics). Understanding the role of bacteriophages in both biofilm disruption and in inhibition of its forming could pave the way for innovative treatments in combating MDR A. baumannii infections as well as the prevention of their development.

The Novel Concept of Synergically Combining: High Hydrostatic Pressure and Lytic Bacteriophages to Eliminate Vegetative and Spore-Forming Bacteria in Food Products

The article focuses on the ongoing challenge of eliminating vegetative and spore-forming bacteria from food products that exhibit resistance to the traditional preservation methods. In response to this need, the authors highlight an innovative approach based on the synergistic utilization of high-hydrostatic-pressure (HHP) and lytic bacteriophages. The article reviews the current research on the use of HHP and lytic bacteriophages to combat bacteria in food products. The scope includes a comprehensive review of the existing literature on bacterial cell damage following HHP application, aiming to elucidate the synergistic effects of these technologies. Through this in-depth analysis, the article aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of how these innovative techniques can improve food safety and quality. There is no available research on the use of HHP and bacteriophages in the elimination of spore-forming bacteria; however, an important role of the synergistic effect of HHP and lytic bacteriophages with the appropriate adjustment of the parameters has been demonstrated in the more effective elimination of non-spore-forming bacteria from food products. This suggests that, when using this approach in the case of spore-forming bacteria, there is a high chance of the effective inactivation of this biological threat.

Exploration of Alicyclobacillus spp. Genome in Search of Antibiotic Resistance

The study investigates the antibiotic resistance (AR) profiles and genetic determinants in three strains of guaiacol-producing Alicyclobacillus spp. isolated from orchard soil and pears. Their phenotypic characteristics, such as spore formation; resistance to different factors, including drugs or disinfectants; or production of off-flavor compounds, can affect the taste and aroma of spoiled products. Food and beverages are potential vectors for the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes, which is a growing health concern; thus, microorganisms in food and beverages should not be a potential source of drug resistance to consumers. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was utilized to identify antibiotic resistance genes, metabolic pathways, and elements associated with guaiacol and halophenol production. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) testing revealed that all strains were susceptible to eight out of nine tested antibiotics (ampicillin, gentamycin, kanamycin, streptomycin, clindamycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and vancomycin) but exhibited high resistance to erythromycin. Analysis indicated that the erythromycin resistance gene, ribosomal RNA small subunit methyltransferase A (RsmA), was intrinsic and likely acquired through horizontal gene transfer (HGT). The comprehensive genomic analysis provides insights into the molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Alicyclobacillus spp., highlighting the potential risk of these bacteria as vectors for antibiotic resistance genes in the food chain. This study expands the understanding of the genetic makeup of these spoilage bacteria and their role in antimicrobial resistance dissemination.

Biological Characterization and Genomic Analysis of Three Novel Serratia- and Enterobacter-Specific Virulent Phages

Due to the high microbiological contamination of raw food materials and the increase in the incidence of multidrug-resistant bacteria, new methods of ensuring microbiological food safety are being sought. One solution may be to use bacteriophages (so-called phages) as natural bacterial enemies. Therefore, the aim of this study was the biological and genomic characterization of three newly isolated Serratia- and Enterobacter-specific virulent bacteriophages as potential candidates for food biocontrol. Serratia phage KKP_3708 (vB_Sli-IAFB_3708), Serratia phage KKP_3709 (vB_Sma-IAFB_3709), and Enterobacter phage KKP_3711 (vB_Ecl-IAFB_3711) were isolated from municipal sewage against Serratia liquefaciens strain KKP 3654, Serratia marcescens strain KKP 3687, and Enterobacter cloacae strain KKP 3684, respectively. The effect of phage addition at different multiplicity of infection (MOI) rates on the growth kinetics of the bacterial hosts was determined using a Bioscreen C Pro growth analyzer. The phages retained high activity in a wide temperature range (from -20 °C to 60 °C) and active acidity values (pH from 3 to 12). Based on transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging and whole-genome sequencing (WGS), the isolated bacteriophages belong to the tailed bacteriophages from the Caudoviricetes class. Genomic analysis revealed that the phages have linear double-stranded DNA of size 40,461 bp (Serratia phage KKP_3708), 67,890 bp (Serratia phage KKP_3709), and 113,711 bp (Enterobacter phage KKP_3711). No virulence, toxins, or antibiotic resistance genes were detected in the phage genomes. The lack of lysogenic markers indicates that all three bacteriophages may be potential candidates for food biocontrol.

First European Erwinia amylovora Lytic Bacteriophage Cocktails Effective in the Host: Characterization and Prospects for Fire Blight Biocontrol

Fire blight, caused by the plant-pathogenic bacterium Erwinia amylovora, is a highly contagious and difficult-to-control disease due to its efficient dissemination and survival and the scarcity of effective control methods. Copper and antibiotics are the most used treatments but pose environmental and human health risks. Bacteriophages (phages) constitute an ecological, safe, and sustainable fire blight control alternative. The goal of this study was to search for specific E. amylovora phages from plant material, soil, and water samples in Mediterranean environments. A collection of phages able to specifically infect and lyse E. amylovora strains was generated from former fire blight-affected orchards in Eastern Spain. Following in vitro characterization, assays in immature fruit revealed that preventively applying some of the phages or their combinations delayed the onset of fire blight symptoms and reduced the disease's severity, suggesting their biocontrol potential in Spain and other countries. The morphological and molecular characterization of the selected E. amylovora phages classified them as members of the class Caudoviricetes (former Myoviridae family) and genus Kolesnikvirus. This study reveals Mediterranean settings as plausible sources of E. amylovora-specific bacteriophages and provides the first effective European phage cocktails in plant material for the development of sustainable fire blight management measures.

Molecular Aspects of the Functioning of Pathogenic Bacteria Biofilm Based on Quorum Sensing (QS) Signal-Response System and Innovative Non-Antibiotic Strategies for Their Elimination

One of the key mechanisms enabling bacterial cells to create biofilms and regulate crucial life functions in a global and highly synchronized way is a bacterial communication system called quorum sensing (QS). QS is a bacterial cell-to-cell communication process that depends on the bacterial population density and is mediated by small signalling molecules called autoinducers (AIs). In bacteria, QS controls the biofilm formation through the global regulation of gene expression involved in the extracellular polymeric matrix (EPS) synthesis, virulence factor production, stress tolerance and metabolic adaptation. Forming biofilm is one of the crucial mechanisms of bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR). A common feature of human pathogens is the ability to form biofilm, which poses a serious medical issue due to their high susceptibility to traditional antibiotics. Because QS is associated with virulence and biofilm formation, there is a belief that inhibition of QS activity called quorum quenching (QQ) may provide alternative therapeutic methods for treating microbial infections. This review summarises recent progress in biofilm research, focusing on the mechanisms by which biofilms, especially those formed by pathogenic bacteria, become resistant to antibiotic treatment. Subsequently, a potential alternative approach to QS inhibition highlighting innovative non-antibiotic strategies to control AMR and biofilm formation of pathogenic bacteria has been discussed.

Control of Escherichia coli in Fresh-Cut Mixed Vegetables Using a Combination of Bacteriophage and Carvacrol

The continual emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the slow development of new antibiotics has driven the resurgent interest in the potential application of bacteriophages as antimicrobial agents in different medical and industrial sectors. In the present study, the potential of combining phage biocontrol and a natural plant compound (carvacrol) in controlling Escherichia coli on fresh-cut mixed vegetable was evaluated. Four coliphages, designated Escherichia phage SUT_E420, Escherichia phage SUT_E520, Escherichia phage SUT_E1520 and Escherichia phage SUT_E1620, were isolated from raw sewage. Biological characterization revealed that all four phages had a latent period of 20-30 min and a burst size ranging from 116 plaque-forming units (PFU)/colony forming units (CFU) to 441 PFU/CFU. The phages effectively inhibited the growth of respective host bacteria in vitro, especially when used at a high multiplicity of infection (MOI). Based on transmission electron microscopy analysis, all phages were classified as tailed phages in the class of Caudoviricetes. Additionally, next generation sequencing indicated that none of the selected coliphages contained genes encoding virulence or antimicrobial resistance factors, highlighting the suitability of isolated phages as biocontrol agents. When a phage cocktail (~109 PFU/mL) was applied alone onto fresh-cut mixed vegetables artificially contaminated with E. coli, no bacteria were recovered from treated samples on Day 0, followed by a gradual increase in the E. coli population after 24 h of incubation at 8 °C. On the other hand, no significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed between treated and non-treated samples in terms of E. coli viable counts when carvacrol at the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 6.25 μL/mL was applied alone. When a phage cocktail at an MOI of ~1000 and MIC carvacrol were applied in combination, no E. coli were recovered from treated samples on Day 0 and 1, followed by a slight increase in the E. coli population to approximately 1.2-1.3 log CFU/mL after 48 h of incubation at 8 °C. However, total elimination of E. coli was observed in samples treated with a phage cocktail at a higher MOI of ~2000 and carvacrol at MIC, with a reduction of approximately 4 log CFU/mL observed at the end of Day 3. The results obtained in this study highlight the potential of combined treatment involving phage biocontrol and carvacrol as a new alternative method to reduce E. coli contamination in minimally processed ready-to-eat foods.

Characterization and Genome Study of a Newly Isolated Temperate Phage Belonging to a New Genus Targeting Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris

The spoilage of juices by Alicyclobacillus spp. remains a serious problem in industry and leads to economic losses. Compounds such as guaiacol and halophenols, which are produced by Alicyclobacillus, create undesirable flavors and odors and, thus, decrease the quality of juices. The inactivation of Alicyclobacillus spp. constitutes a challenge because it is resistant to environmental factors, such as high temperatures, and active acidity. However, the use of bacteriophages seems to be a promising approach. In this study, we aimed to isolate and comprehensively characterize a novel bacteriophage targeting Alicyclobacillus spp. The Alicyclobacillus phage strain KKP 3916 was isolated from orchard soil against the Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris strain KKP 3133. The bacterial host's range and the effect of phage addition at different rates of multiplicity of infections (MOIs) on the host's growth kinetics were determined using a Bioscreen C Pro growth analyzer. The Alicyclobacillus phage strain KKP 3916, retained its activity in a wide range of temperatures (from 4 °C to 30 °C) and active acidity values (pH from 3 to 11). At 70 °C, the activity of the phage decreased by 99.9%. In turn, at 80 °C, no activity against the bacterial host was observed. Thirty minutes of exposure to UV reduced the activity of the phages by almost 99.99%. Based on transmission-electron microscopy (TEM) and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analyses, the Alicyclobacillus phage strain KKP 3916 was classified as a tailed bacteriophage. The genomic sequencing revealed that the newly isolated phage had linear double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) with sizes of 120 bp and 131 bp and 40.3% G+C content. Of the 204 predicted proteins, 134 were of unknown function, while the remainder were annotated as structural, replication, and lysis proteins. No genes associated with antibiotic resistance were found in the genome of the newly isolated phage. However, several regions, including four associated with integration into the bacterial host genome and excisionase, were identified, which indicates the temperate (lysogenic) life cycle of the bacteriophage. Due to the risk of its potential involvement in horizontal gene transfer, this phage is not an appropriate candidate for further research on its use in food biocontrol. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first article on the isolation and whole-genome analysis of the Alicyclobacillus-specific phage.