Integrated Pest Management of Coffee Berry Borer: Strategies from Latin America that Could Be Useful for Coffee Farmers in Hawaii

Vertical and temporal flight patterns of coffee berry borer (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Hawaii

Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is the most damaging insect pest of coffee worldwide, causing significant losses in coffee yields and quality. Knowledge of vertical and temporal flight patterns in coffee berry borer could be used to optimize spray timing and precision targeting of areas within the coffee tree, which may be more susceptible. In the present study, we estimated the vertical distribution of coffee berry borer females using traps set at 1-m intervals up to 5 m in height. We also quantified coffee berry borer infestation in the low, mid, and high canopy and documented fruit availability. Temporal flight patterns were estimated using timer traps, and correlation analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between the timing of daily flight and weather variables. Across the 4 study sites, we observed that 77%-84% of the trap catch was at 1 m, 11%-20% was at 2 m, and 1%-4% was at 3-5 m in height. Fruit infestation was significantly higher in the low branches (35%) relative to the high branches (17%). Flight height remained the same year-round, regardless of fruit availability. Coffee berry borer flew in low numbers during the day and night but peaked from 12 to 4 PM. Daily flight was positively correlated with an increase in air temperature and wind speed and negatively correlated with relative humidity. Findings from this study suggest that pesticide sprays should target low- to mid-level branches at 1-2 m in height and aim to be conducted in the early afternoon when coffee berry borer are actively flying and most vulnerable to chemical controls.

Virulence of Beauveria sp. and Metarhizium sp. fungi towards fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)

The development of effective pest management strategies for Spodoptera frugiperda is a high priority for crop protection across its invasive ranges. Here, we examined six Beauveria and five Metarhizium fungal isolates against this pest. Two Beauveria isolates (B-0571, B-1311) induced high mortality toward 3rd and 6th instar caterpillars and adults. For B-0571 mortality was 82.81 ± 5.75%, 61.46 ± 6.83%, and 93.75 ± 3.61%, and 73.72 ± 2.51%, 71.88 ± 5.41%, and 97.92 ± 2.08% for B-1311, with deaths in caterpillars largely occurring under 24 h (3rd instar control 0.74 ± 0.33%, B-0571 73.96 ± 7.85% and B-1311 62.08 ± 3.67%; 6th instar control 0%, B-0571 66.67% ± 11.02% and B-1311 62.5% ± 9.55%). Infection from both Beauveria isolates fully prevented reproduction in surviving S. frugiperda females. In contrast, all five Metarhizium isolates tested and the remaining four Beauveria isolates exhibited lower virulence. The discovery of two highly virulent Beauveria fungal isolates to S. frugiperda opens avenues to develop novel biological control tools against this highly invasive pest.

Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): Activity and Infestation in the High Mountain and Blue Mountain Regions of Jamaica

Jamaica produces coffee marketed as Blue Mountain and high mountain (grown outside the Blue Mountains). Since the discovery of the coffee berry borer (CBB; Hypothenemus hampei) in Jamaica in 1978, chemical control has traditionally been the primary approach used to protect the crop from the pest. However, in the last 20 years, there has been an effort to shift towards more sustainable management strategies. The study was conducted to determine CBB activity (trap catch) and field infestation on coffee farms in the high mountains and Blue Mountains of Jamaica, over a crop cycle. A total of 27,929 and 12,921 CBBs were captured at high mountain and Blue Mountain farms, respectively. Peak CBB activity occurred in April in the high mountain region (365 CBBs/trap/month) and February in the Blue Mountain region (129 CBBs/trap/month). The highest levels of infestation were in November (33%) and October (34%) in the high mountain region and Blue Mountain region, respectively. There was no significant difference in the patterns of CBB activity and infestation between the study locations, and neither were related to the temperature or relative humidity. However, there was a significant relationship with rainfall. These data suggest that the population dynamics of the CBB may involve complex interactions among weather conditions, berry development, and agronomic practices.

Establishing an Integrated Pest Management Program for Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei) in Hawaii and Puerto Rico Coffee Agroecosystems: Achievements and Challenges

Coffee berry borer (CBB) is the most serious insect pest of coffee worldwide, causing significant reductions in yield and quality. Following the introduction of CBB to Puerto Rico (2007) and Hawaii (2010), researchers, extension agents, industry representatives, and coffee growers have worked together to develop an integrated pest management (IPM) program that is both effective and economically feasible for each island. Since the introduction of the IPM program in Hawaii, research efforts have led to a better understanding of CBB population dynamics, as well as optimized monitoring, cultural practices, and commercial Beauveria bassiana applications. As a result of these efforts, a substantial reduction in average CBB infestation and an increase in coffee yields and quality have been documented in Hawaii over the last decade. However, significant challenges remain in addressing high production and labor costs, limited availability of labor, and a lack of training for field workers in both regions. Although considerable effort has gone into research to support CBB IPM in Hawaii and Puerto Rico, the adoption of these strategies by coffee farmers needs to be increased. More diversified methods of outreach and education are needed to reach growers in rural, isolated areas. Significant gaps exist in the ability and willingness of growers and workers to access and digest information online, emphasizing the importance of on-farm workshops and farmer-to-farmer teaching. Additional methods of training are needed to help coffee farmers and field workers learn how to properly conduct cultural controls and optimize the use of biological control agents such as B. bassiana.

Economic Benefits from Managing Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei) in Hawaii

Coffee berry borer (CBB) is considered the most damaging insect pest of coffee worldwide. CBB was first detected on Hawai'i Island in 2010, and quickly spread throughout the state's coffee-growing regions. With the introduction of this pest, Hawaii's small yet economically important coffee industry was changed forever with growers facing significantly higher production and labor costs, as well as decreased yield and coffee quality. We assessed the economic benefits of managing CBB based on three strategies that emerged in Hawaii over the last decade: (1) the use of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana alone, (2) early integrated pest management (IPM), which combined monitoring and sanitation with spraying B. bassiana, and (3) research-based IPM, which focused on CBB biology in Hawaii, optimization of monitoring, B. bassiana applications, and cultural controls. From 2011 to 2021, the economic benefits from managing CBB were USD 52 million using B. bassiana alone, USD 69 million from early IPM, and USD 130 million from research-based IPM, for a total of USD 251 million from all management. Our findings suggest that all types of management provide economic benefits to Hawaii growers, but management strategies based on Hawaii-specific research have provided the greatest gains in coffee yield, price, and revenue.

Coffee pest severity by agrometeorological models in subtropical climate

This study aimed to estimate the number of generations and cycle duration of the southern red mite, coffee berry borer, and coffee leaf miner using the thermal index to assist in controlling these main coffee pests in the state of Paraná, Brazil. The data of maximum and minimum air temperature (°C) and precipitation (mm) of all municipalities in the state from 1984 to 2018 were collected from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration/Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resources (NASA/POWER). The reference evapotranspiration was estimated using the (Camargo Campinas IAC Boletim 116:9, 1971) method and the water balance was calculated using the method of ( Thornthwaite C, Mather J (1955) The water balance publications in climatology, 8 (1). DIT, Laboratory of climatology, Centerton, NJ, USA). The basal temperature of each pest minus the average temperature of the years was used to calculate the degrees-day, the duration of the pest cycle, and the number of generations per year. The influence of altitude on the development of coffee pests was measured using the Pearson correlation. The thermal index is able to estimate the damage caused by coffee pests in the state of Pará, Brazil. Coffee pests show greater severity in the north of Paraná, in the regions with the highest temperatures. It is the same region that concentrates most of the coffee production of the state. The results of the life cycle and number of generations were interpolated for the entire state using the kriging method. Coffee pests showed the highest severity in the north region of the state of Paraná, more specifically in the Northwest, North Central, and West Central mesoregions. These regions have concentrated most of the state's coffee production. Mesoregions with the highest coffee production in the state showed higher susceptibility to coffee pests. Altitude showed a high correlation (r > 0.6) with the cycle variability and number of generations of coffee pests. The average cycles of the coffee berry borer, coffee leaf miner, and southern red mite are 24.13 (± 8.34), 45.64 (± 18.61), and 21.51 (± 3.51) days, respectively. The average annual generation was 16.67 (± 4.77), 9.02 (± 2.75), and 17.32 (± 2.63) generations, for the coffee berry borer, the coffee red mite, and the southern red mite, respectively.

Predation of Coffee Berry Borer by a Green Lacewing

We report here for the first time, the predation of coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) by a green lacewing species, Chrysoperla externa (Hagen). We showed in laboratory the predator ability to access CBB galleries, remove pest immature stages, and prey on them. We also observed predation by third instar larvae on CBB adults. With this note, we add a new predator to the reported list of species still little explored of CBB control.

Influence of seasonal and climatic variables on coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari) flight activity in Hawaii

Coffee berry borer (CBB, Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari) is the most serious insect pest of coffee worldwide, yet little is known about the effect that weather variables have on CBB flight activity. We sampled flying female CBB adults bi-weekly over a three-year period using red funnel traps baited with an alcohol lure at 14 commercial coffee farms on Hawaii Island to characterize seasonal phenology and the relationship between flight activity and five weather variables. We captured almost 5 million scolytid beetles during the sampling period, with 81-93% of the trap catch comprised of CBB. Of the captured non-target beetles, the majority were tropical nut borer, black twig borer and a species of Cryphalus. Two major flight events were consistent across all three years: an initial emergence from January-April that coincided with early fruit development and a second flight during the harvest season from September-December. A generalized additive mixed model (GAMM) revealed that mean daily air temperature had a highly significant positive correlation with CBB flight; most flight events occurred between 20-26°C. Mean daily solar radiation also had a significant positive relationship with flight. Flight was positively correlated with maximum daily relative humidity at values below ~94%, and cumulative rainfall up to 100 mm; flight was also positively correlated with maximum daily wind speeds up to ~2.5 m/s, after which activity declined. Our findings provide important insight into CBB flight patterns across a highly variable landscape and can serve as a starting point for the development of flight prediction models.

A Review on Papaya Mealybug Identification and Management Through Plant Essential Oils

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) production suffers from a multitude of abiotic and biotic constraints, among those are insect pests, diseases, and environmental conditions. One of the seriously damaging pests of papaya is invasive papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus, which can inflict heavy yield loss if not contained. Little information on papaya mealybug species has been documented due to challenges in identification approaches to species level. The current approach is based on the morphological features which are restricted to the mealybug life cycle leading to unclear identification. In Sub-Saharan Africa, where a wide diversity of mealybug species exists, it is essential to have a correct identification of these insect species due to the specificity of control measures. Molecular identification could be the best way to identify the mealybug at the species level. Presently, farmers rely heavily on chemical pesticides as their only available option for papaya mealybug control. The overuse of pesticides due to insect waxy covering has led to the development of pesticide resistance and the negative impact on the local ecosystem. Alternatively, the use of plant essential oils (EOs) with adjuvant is suggested as the safe solution to papaya mealybug control as they contain a rich source of natural chemicals that dissolve the insect wax layer, causing the cell membrane to rupture eventually leading to death. This review provides current research knowledge about the papaya mealybug identification approaches and plant EOs from Sweet orange, garlic, castor, and adjuvant (isopropyl alcohol, and paraffin) as sustainable papaya mealybug management.

Agro-Ecological Management of Coffee Pests in Brazil

Coffee plants host several herbivorous species, but only few are considered pests. Brazil is the largest coffee producer of the world, and the two key coffee pests of the crop in the country are the coffee leaf miner Leucoptera coffeella and the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei. However, in some regions or on specific conditions, species of mites and scales can also cause damage to coffee plants. Conventional management of coffee pests relies on chemical pesticides, and it is the most commonly used strategy in Brazil, but environmental problems, pest resistance, and toxicity-related issues have led coffee growers to search for alternatives for pest control. Agro-ecological strategies suitable to coffee cultivation can be adopted by farmers, based on plant diversification, in order to provide resources for natural enemies, such as nectar, pollen, shelter, microclimate conditions, and oviposition sites, thereby promoting conservation biological control. Here I revise these strategies and report the results from research in Brazil. I include results on agroforestry, use of cover crops, and non-crop plant management. These are complemented by curative measures based on the use of organic farming-approved pesticides that can be employed when the agro-ecological practices are not yet consolidated. I also present the cultural control method used by several coffee producers in Brazil to decrease coffee berry borer damage.

A coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) genome assembly reveals a reduced chemosensory receptor gene repertoire and male-specific genome sequences

Coffee berry borer-CBB (Hypothenemus hampei) is a globally important economic pest of coffee (Coffea spp.). Despite current insect control methods for managing CBB, development of future control strategies requires a better understanding of its biology and interaction with its host plant. Towards this objective, we performed de novo CBB genome and transcriptome sequencing, improved CBB genome assembly and predicted 18,765 protein-encoding genes. Using genome and transcriptome data, we annotated the genes associated with chemosensation and found a reduced gene repertoire composed by 67 odorant receptors (ORs), 62 gustatory receptors (GRs), 33 ionotropic receptors (IRs) and 29 odorant-binding proteins (OBPs). In silico transcript abundance analysis of these chemosensory genes revealed expression enrichment in CBB adults compared with larva. Detection of differentially expressed chemosensory genes between males and females is likely associated with differences in host-finding behavior between sexes. Additionally, we discovered male-specific genome content and identified candidate male-specific expressed genes on these scaffolds, suggesting that a Y-like chromosome may be involved in the CBB's functional haplodiploid mechanism of sex determination.

Emergence and Infestation Level of Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on Coffee Berries on the Plant or on the Ground During the Post-harvest Period in Brazil

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is the most important coffee pest in most of the coffee growing countries. CBB females leave old dry berries after harvest and search for dry noninfested berries on the plant or on the ground to lay eggs or to use as refuge until new berries are available on the coffee trees in the following season. The CBB infestation level and emergence from berries on the ground or on the plants were evaluated in two fields post-harvest in the Spring in Brazil over two seasons. Twenty infested or noninfested berries in separate cages (250 ml plastic cups) were placed on the plants or on the ground under the tree canopy, in each field. The number of infested berries and CBB females that emerged from the infested berries were recorded weekly. CBB emergence was higher from berries on the ground than those on the coffee trees in both seasons, whereas CBB infestation was higher on coffee berries on the plants than those on the ground in season I. Insolation (hours of sunlight) and temperature were the main covariates that affected emergence and infestation by this insect. The results are discussed for monitoring CBB during the time of dispersal with implications on integrated management of this pest.

A one-dimensional map to study multi-seasonal coffee infestation by the coffee berry borer

The coffee berry borer (CBB, Hypothenemus hampei) is the most serious insect pest of coffee worldwide; understanding the dynamics of its reproduction is essential for pest management. The female CBB penetrates the coffee berry, eats the seed, and reproduces inside it. A mathematical model of the infestation progress of the coffee berry by the CBB during several coffee seasons is formulated. The model represents the interaction among five populations: uninfested, slightly infested, and severely infested coffee berries, and free and encapsulated CBBs. Coffee harvesting is also included in the model. A one-dimensional map is derived for tracking the population dynamics subject to certain coffee harvesting percentages over several seasons. Stability analysis of the map's fixed points shows that CBB infestation could be eliminated or controlled to a specific level over multiple seasons of coffee harvesting. However, the percent of coffee harvesting required is determined by the level of CBB infestation at the beginning of the first season and in some cases it is impossible to achieve that percentage.

Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei), a Global Pest of Coffee: Perspectives from Historical and Recent Invasions, and Future Priorities

Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), CBB) has invaded nearly every coffee-producing country in the world, and it is commonly recognized as the most damaging insect pest of coffee. While research has been conducted on this pest in individual coffee-growing regions, new insights may be gained by comparing and contrasting patterns of invasion and response across its global distribution. In this review, we explore the existing literature and focus on common themes in the invasion biology of CBB by examining (1) how it was introduced into each particular region and the response to its invasion, (2) flight activity and infestation patterns, (3) economic impacts, and (4) management strategies. We highlight research conducted over the last ten years in Hawaii as a case study for the development and implementation of an effective integrated pest management (IPM) program for CBB, and also discuss biosecurity issues contributing to incursion and establishment. Potential areas for future research in each of the five major components of CBB IPM (monitoring and sampling, cultural, biological, chemical, and physical controls) are also presented. Finally, we emphasize that outreach efforts are crucial to the successful implementation of CBB IPM programs. Future research programs should strive to include coffee growers as much as possible to ensure that management options are feasible and cost-effective.

Evaluation of Exclusion Netting for Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus Hampei) Management

Exclusion nets are increasingly being used to protect a variety of agricultural crops from insect pests as a sustainable alternative to chemical controls. We examined the efficacy of exclusion nets in controlling the world's most damaging insect pest of coffee, Hypothenemus hampei (coffee berry borer), on two small-scale coffee farms on Hawai'i Island. We recorded microclimate data, fruit infestation, population per fruit, sex ratio, mortality by Beauveria bassiana, coffee yield and quality in four paired exclusion and control (un-netted) plots on both farms. Mean and maximum daily temperature and relative humidity were similar between treatments, while mean and maximum daily solar radiation was reduced by ~50% in exclusion plots. Green and ripe fruit from exclusion plots had significantly lower infestation compared to un-netted control plots at both farms. We observed no significant difference between exclusion and control plots in the number of CBB per fruit or the female:male sex ratio. CBB mortality was significantly higher in control relative to exclusion plots in one of the two farms. Ripe fruits harvested from exclusion plots were on average significantly heavier and wider than those from control plots; however, there was no significant difference in the average yield per tree between treatments. Lastly, coffee quality was not significantly different between control and exclusion plots. Our results suggest that with complete sanitation prior to net installation in an environment where CBB is actively circulating, exclusion netting can successfully control CBB on small-scale coffee farms without reducing coffee yield or quality, and has the potential to lower production and labor costs by eliminating the need to spray pesticides.

Differential Metabolic Responses Caused by the Most Important Insect Pest of Coffee Worldwide, the Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei)

The world's coffee supply is threatened by the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, the most destructive pest affecting coffee production and quality. This study hypothesized that coffee berry borer infestation induces distinct metabolic responses in the green coffee seeds of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora (robusta). A targeted metabolomics approach was conducted using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to quantify intracellular metabolites in infested and uninfested arabica and robusta green seeds. In parallel, the seed biomass content and composition were assessed for the same conditions. Coffee berry borer attack induced increases in the levels of chlorogenic acids in arabica seeds, whereas organic acids and sugar alcohols were more abundant in infested robusta seeds. Most importantly, a set of compounds was identified as biomarkers differentiating the metabolic response of these taxa to the coffee berry borer.

Postharvest Population Reservoirs of Coffee Berry Borer (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on Hawai'i Island

Coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), is the most damaging insect pest of coffee worldwide. Old coffee berries (raisins) are widely acknowledged as coffee berry borer reservoirs, yet few studies have attempted to quantify coffee berry borer populations in raisins remaining on farms postharvest. We collected ground and tree raisins at six coffee farms on Hawai'i Island to assess raisin density, infestation, coffee berry borer abundance, and adult mortality in three areas of each farm: trees, driplines (ground below the tree foliage), and center aisles (ground between tree rows). We also assessed infestation of the new season's crop by conducting whole-tree counts of infested green berries. Mean raisin density was significantly higher in the dripline compared to the center aisle and trees (131 vs 17 raisins per m2 and 12 raisins per tree, respectively). Raisin infestation was significantly higher in samples from trees (70%) relative to those from the dripline (22%) and center aisle (18%). Tree raisins had significantly higher coffee berry borer abundance compared to both areas of the ground (20 vs 3-5 coffee berry borer per raisin). Adult mortality was significantly higher on the ground (63-71%) compared to the trees (12%). We also observed a significant positive correlation between ground raisin density and infestation of the new season's crop. Across all farms, we estimated that 49.5% of the total coffee berry borer load was present in dripline raisins, 47.3% in tree raisins, and 3.2% in center aisle raisins. Our findings confirm the importance of whole-farm sanitation in coffee berry borer management by demonstrating the negative impact that poor postharvest control can have on the following season's crop.

Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) development across an elevational gradient on Hawai'i Island: Applying laboratory degree-day predictions to natural field populations

Coffee berry borer (CBB, Hypothenemus hampei) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is the most destructive pest of coffee worldwide. Information on CBB development times can be used to predict the initiation of new infestation cycles early in the coffee-growing season and thus inform the timing of insecticide applications. While laboratory estimates of CBB development under constant conditions exist, they have not been applied under the heterogeneous environmental conditions that characterize many coffee-growing regions. We measured CBB development times and abundance in commercial coffee farms across an elevational gradient on Hawai‘i Island and applied thermal accumulation models from previous laboratory studies to test their fit to field data. Artificial lures were used to infest coffee berries at five farms ranging in elevation from 279–792 m, and weather variables were monitored at macro (farm-level) and micro (branch-level) scales. CBB development was followed in the field from the time of initial berry infestation by the founding female through the development of F1 mature adults. Mean development time from egg to adult across all sites was 38.5 ± 3.46 days, while the mean time required for the completion of a full life cycle (from time of infestation to presence of mature F1 females) was 50.9 ± 3.35 days. Development time increased with increasing elevation and decreasing temperature. Using macro-scale temperature data and two different estimates for the lower temperature threshold (14.9°C and 13.9°C), we estimated a mean requirement of 332 ± 14 degree-days and 386 ± 16 degree-days, respectively, from the time of berry infestation to the initiation of a new reproductive cycle in mature coffee berries. Similar estimates were obtained using micro-scale temperature data, indicating that macro-scale temperature monitoring is sufficient for life-cycle prediction. We also present a model relating elevation to number of CBB generations per month. Our findings suggest that CBB development times from laboratory studies are generally applicable to field conditions on Hawai‘i Island and can be used as a decision support tool to improve IPM strategies for this worldwide pest of coffee.

Analysis of volatile profiles of green Hawai'ian coffee beans damaged by the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei)

BACKGROUND

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei, is the most destructive insect pest of coffee globally, causing significant losses in yield and leading to 'off' flavors in damaged beans. Automated headspace sampling (AHS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to investigate changes in the volatile profiles of CBB-damaged green coffee beans. Green coffee from three coffee farms on the island of Hawai'i were sorted into three levels of CBB damage: non-damaged, slightly damaged (1-2 pinholes/bean), and heavily damaged (> 2 pinholes/bean).

RESULTS

Distinct differences were found between green coffee bean samples based on the amounts of eight prominent volatiles. The amount of CBB damage was particularly correlated with the amount of both hexanal and 2-pentylfuran. Principal component analysis showed clustering of non-damaged green beans, which did not overlap with the slightly or heavily damaged clusters. Good separation was also found between a mixture of 50% slightly damaged and non-damaged coffee. However, 20% slightly damaged and non-damaged coffee clusters showed strong overlap.

CONCLUSION

Understanding the effects of CBB damage on coffee flavor profiles is critical to quality control for this valuable agricultural product. The results of this study show that the volatile profiles of green coffee beans vary with CBB damage. With specific volatile profiles for CBB-damaged coffee identified, coffee samples can be tested in the lab, or potentially on the farm or in coffee mills, to identify high levels of CBB damage that may lead to off flavors and a reduction in product quality and value. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Environmental risk assessment for sustainable pesticide use in coffee production

The extensive use of pesticides in agricultural practices has been associated with human health problems and environmental contamination worldwide. Brazil is the largest consumer of pesticides in the world and Espírito Santo State stands out as the second Brazilian producer of coffee. However, there is no information about environmental impact of coffee producing at Itapemirim River Basin (IRB) region, Espírito Santo State, Brazil; hence a simple and quick method using open access softwares (AGROSCRE and ARAquá Web) to estimate surface entrainment and pesticide leaching potential was carried out. AGROSCRE evaluates the contamination risk of superficial and groundwater by Active Ingredients (AIs), using GOSS Method, GUS index and US EPA criteria, while ARAquá Web estimates AI concentrations in water resources, indicating their suitability based on water quality requirements for different uses. Regarding pesticides used in coffee plantations, there is 44.7% chance of surface water and 23.7% chance of groundwater contamination. Results showed that ametryne, cyproconazole, diuron, epoxiconazole, flutriafol, triadimenol and triazophos pose contamination risk to both surface water and groundwater in the IRB region. Of these, 10.5% of the total AIs are triazoles and fall under environmental classes II and III (Product Very/Dangerous to the Environment). The AIs ametryne, thiamethoxam, iprodione, flutriafol, triazophos, endosulfan, triadimenol, cyproconazole, diuron, pendimethalin, chlorpyrifos, copper II hydroxide, etion, epoxiconazole and paraquat dichloride, were found to be potentially toxic, presenting environmental concentrations ranging from 123.40 μg L^-1 to 0.14 μg L^-1, which are higher than the safety standard for potable water (0.1 μg L^-1). With respect to these AIs, chlorpyrifos, ethion and triazophos showed concentrations higher than EC₅₀ values for aquatic invertebrates and ametryne and diuron for algae. Thus, local residents and environment may be at high risk of pesticide exposure, when these AIs are used in coffee plantations next to surface water or groundwater.

A Novel Method to Evaluate the Reproductive Potential of Phymastichus coffea (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) Under Laboratory Conditions

Life fertility tables were constructed for Phymastichus coffea LaSalle, the only known endoparasitoid wasp that attacks the adult female of the coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari. No preoviposition period was observed, and the parasitoid female attacked the CBB females immediately after emergence. The reproductive period was 20.33 (±0.87 SE) h and the postreproductive period of 14.78 (±0.99 SE) h. Mean generation time was 37 d. Median longevity for female and male fed on honey-water solution (50:50) was 35.22 (±1.18 SE) and 17.16 (±0.96 SE) h, respectively. The highest oviposition values were observed during the first 4 h after emergence. The sex ratio (F:M) was 1.11 (±0.31 SE): 1.04 (±0.32 SE) with a finite rate of increase [λ] of 1.06 (±0.002 SE) wasp per days and a rm value of 0.067 (±0.002 SE). Gross fecundity [Mx] and net fecundity [mx] were 19.87 (±1.57 SE) males and females per female and 10.9 (±0.88 SE) females per female, respectively. The net reproductive rate [R0] was 9.49 (±0.75 SE) female per wasp. This study was designed to quantify reproductive rates of P. coffea in CBB females reared on artificial diets and used to improve a mass rearing system for this parasitoid.

Abridged Life Tables for Cephalonomia stephanoderis and Prorops nasuta (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) Parasitoids of Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) Reared on Artificial Diet

Biological aspects and demographic parameters of Cephalonomia stephanoderis Betrem (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) and Prorops nasuta Waterston (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) parasitoids of the coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) were investigated using diet-reared CBB hosts. Developmental time from eggs to adults, oviposition, and postoviposition period were comparable for both parasitoids. However, P. nasuta had a considerably longer preoviposition and longevity period averaging 17.3 and 63.1 d, respectively. The reproductive rate for C. stephanoderis was 46.1 daughters per female with a mean generation time of 47.4 d, whereas P. nasuta had a reproductive rate of 18.3 daughters per female in a mean time of 58.6 d. Oviposition behavior was also different with C. stephanoderis typically ovipositing on CBB prepupae and pupae, while P. nasuta preferred prepupae and second-instar CBB larvae. An abridged cohort life table for both parasitoids was constructed for growth rates estimations.

Flight Activity and Field Infestation Relationships for Coffee Berry Borer in Commercial Coffee Plantations in Kona and Kau Districts, Hawaii

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is a recent invader to Hawaii. To date, limited information regarding the seasonal phenology of this pest on the islands limits the implementation of integrated control strategies. As part of a coffee farmer training program, we monitored CBB flight activity in 15 coffee plantations (Kona and Kau Districts) over 10 mo with methanol-ethanol (3:1 ratio) baited traps. Concurrently, we quantified CBB infestation and penetration rates inside developing coffee berries through the end of harvest. Approximately 1 million CBB were captured, with the highest activity (e.g., >500 CBB/trap/wk) in December through February, coinciding with end of main regional harvesting periods. Relatively high activity (>250 CBB/trap/wk) was also observed during berry development, in May and June (Kona) and June and July (Kau). Field infestation rates were higher overall in Kau (9.6 ± 1.1%) compared with coffee plantations in Kona (4.7 ± 0.4%). Linear regression investigated relationships between CBB trap data and berry infestation rates. Trap catch data generally correlated better with the proportion of shallow entries (AB position) compared with deeper penetrations (CD position) or total infestation. Pearson correlation coefficients based on different parameters (i.e., region, altitude, and berry phenology) revealed positive and mostly significant correlations between these variables (R values 0.410 to 0.837). Timing peak flight activity of CBB with insecticide applications will help coffee growers improve pest control. The ability of trap data to calculate reliable economic (action) thresholds for the CBB is discussed.

Integrated Pest Management of Coffee Berry Borer in Hawaii and Puerto Rico: Current Status and Prospects

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei, is the most significant insect pest of coffee worldwide. Since CBB was detected in Puerto Rico in 2007 and Hawaii in 2010, coffee growers from these islands are facing increased costs, reduced coffee quality, and increased pest management challenges. Here, we outline the CBB situation, and summarize the findings of growers, researchers, and extension professionals working with CBB in Hawaii. Recommendations for the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program for CBB in Hawaiian Islands and Puerto Rico include: (1) establish a CBB monitoring program, (2) synchronize applications of insecticides with peak flight activity of CBB especially during the early coffee season, (3) conduct efficient strip-picking as soon as possible after harvest and perform pre-harvest sanitation picks in CBB hotspots if needed, (4) establish protocols to prevent the escape of CBB from processing areas and when transporting berries during harvest, and (5) stump prune by blocks. Progress achieved includes the introduction of the mycoinsecticide Beauveria bassiana to coffee plantations, the coordination of area-wide CBB surveys, the establishment and augmentation of native beetle predators, and an observed reduction of CBB populations and increased coffee quality where IPM programs were established. However, CBB remains a challenge for coffee growers due to regional variability in CBB pressures, high costs, and labor issues, including a lack of training and awareness of CBB management practices among growers.

To Spray or Not to Spray: A Decision Analysis of Coffee Berry Borer in Hawaii

Integrated pest management strategies were adopted to combat the coffee berry borer (CBB) after its arrival in Hawaii in 2010. A decision tree framework is used to model the CBB integrated pest management recommendations, for potential use by growers and to assist in developing and evaluating management strategies and policies. The model focuses on pesticide spraying (spray/no spray) as the most significant pest management decision within each period over the entire crop season. The main result from the analysis suggests the most important parameter to maximize net benefit is to ensure a low initial infestation level. A second result looks at the impact of a subsidy for the cost of pesticides and shows a typical farmer receives a positive net benefit of $947.17. Sensitivity analysis of parameters checks the robustness of the model and further confirms the importance of a low initial infestation level vis-a-vis any level of subsidy. The use of a decision tree is shown to be an effective method for understanding integrated pest management strategies and solutions.

The Coffee Berry Borer (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Puerto Rico: Distribution, Infestation, and Population per Fruit

The coffee berry borer (CBB) (Hypothenemus hampei: Ferrar) was first detected in Puerto Rico in 2007. Its distribution since then has been extensive, but not extensively documented. An island-wide survey was carried out from August to November 2014 (the coffee production season) to assess CBB distribution, infestation, and population per fruit. The CBB was well-established throughout the coffee-growing area of Puerto Rico, but was not evenly distributed. Infestation (or percentages of fruits perforated) in sites sampled ranged from 0 to 95%, and CBB number per infested fruit varied from 1 to 34 individuals. CBB infestation and total population per fruit were positively correlated with altitude. Highest infestation and total population were observed in sites located >400 masl; most of the coffee-producing area in Puerto Rico is above this altitude. Coffea arabica (L.) had higher CBB infestation and population per fruit than Coffea canephora (Pierre ex A. Froehner) (robusta coffee). Based on these results, management tools should be implemented to mitigate the severe damage that CBB is causing in Puerto Rico. These management tools should include the removal of all fruits that remain on the plants after harvest and the use of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balls.) Vuill. for biocontrol, especially on coffee farms at higher elevations.

Enhancing the effectiveness of biological control programs of invasive species through a more comprehensive pest management approach

Invasive species are one of the greatest economic and ecological threats to agriculture and natural areas in the US and the world. Among the available management tools, biological control provides one of the most economical and long-term effective strategies for managing widespread and damaging invasive species populations of nearly all taxa. However, integrating biological control programs in a more complete integrated pest management approach that utilizes increased information and communication, post-release monitoring, adaptive management practices, long-term stewardship strategies, and new and innovative ecological and genetic technologies can greatly improve the effectiveness of biological control. In addition, expanding partnerships among relevant national, regional, and local agencies, as well as academic scientists and land managers, offers far greater opportunities for long-term success in the suppression of established invasive species. In this paper we direct our recommendations to federal agencies that oversee, fund, conduct research, and develop classical biological control programs for invasive species. By incorporating these recommendations into adaptive management strategies, private and public land managers will have far greater opportunities for long-term success in suppression of established invasive species. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

The production and uses of Beauveria bassiana as a microbial insecticide

Among invertebrate fungal pathogens, Beauveria bassiana has assumed a key role in management of numerous arthropod agricultural, veterinary and forestry pests. Beauveria is typically deployed in one or more inundative applications of large numbers of aerial conidia in dry or liquid formulations, in a chemical paradigm. Mass production is mainly practiced by solid-state fermentation to yield hydrophobic aerial conidia, which remain the principal active ingredient of mycoinsecticides. More robust and cost-effective fermentation and formulation downstream platforms are imperative for its overall commercialization by industry. Hence, where economics allow, submerged liquid fermentation provides alternative method to produce effective and stable propagules that can be easily formulated as dry stable preparations. Formulation also continues to be a bottleneck in the development of stable and effective commercial Beauveria-mycoinsecticides in many countries, although good commercial formulations do exist. Future research on improving fermentation and formulation technologies coupled with the selection of multi-stress tolerant and virulent strains is needed to catalyze the widespread acceptance and usefulness of this fungus as a cost-effective mycoinsecticide. The role of Beauveria as one tool among many in integrated pest management, rather than a stand-alone management approach, needs to be better developed across the range of crop systems. Here, we provide an overview of mass-production and formulation strategies, updated list of registered commercial products, major biocontrol programs and ecological aspects affecting the use of Beauveria as a mycoinsecticide.