Short-Range Responses of the Kissing Bug Triatoma rubida (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) to Carbon Dioxide, Moisture, and Artificial Light

Development of an operational trap for collection, killing, and preservation of triatomines (Hemiptera: Reduviidae): the kissing bug kill trap

Surveillance of triatomines or kissing bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Triatominae), the insect vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, a Chagas disease agent, is hindered by the lack of an effective trap. To develop a kissing bug trap, we made iterative improvements over 3 years on a basic design resulting in 7 trap prototypes deployed across field sites in Texas, United States and Northern Mexico, yielding the capture of 325 triatomines of 4 species (Triatoma gerstaeckeri [Stål], T. sanguisuga [LeConte], T. neotomae [Neiva], and T. rubida [Uhler]). We began in 2019 with vertical transparent tarpaulin panel traps illuminated with artificial light powered by AC current, which were successful in autonomous trapping of flying triatomines, but were expensive, labor-intensive, and fragile. In 2020, we switched to white LED lights powered by a solar cell. We tested a scaled-down version of the vertical panel traps, a commercial cross-vane trap, and a multiple-funnel trap. The multiple-funnel traps captured 2.6× more kissing bugs per trap-day than cross-vane traps and approached the performance of the vertical panel traps in number of triatomines captured, number of triatomines per trap-day and triatomines per arthropod bycatch. Multiple-funnel traps required the least labor, were more durable, and had the highest triatomines per day per cost. Propylene glycol in the collection cups effectively preserved captured triatomines allowing for molecular detection of T. cruzi. The trapping experiments established dispersal patterns for the captured species. We conclude that multiple-funnel traps with solar-powered LED lights should be considered for adoption as surveillance and potentially mass-trapping management tools for triatomines.

An update and review of arthropod vector sensory systems: Potential targets for behavioural manipulation by parasites and other disease agents

For over a century, vector ecology has been a mainstay of vector-borne disease control. Much of this research has focused on the sensory ecology of blood-feeding arthropods (black flies, mosquitoes, ticks, etc.) with terrestrial vertebrate hosts. Of particular interest are the cues and sensory systems that drive host seeking and host feeding behaviours as they are critical for a vector to locate and feed from a host. An important yet overlooked component of arthropod vector ecology are the phenotypic changes observed in infected vectors that increase disease transmission. While our fundamental understanding of sensory mechanisms in disease vectors has drastically increased due to recent advances in genome engineering, for example, the advent of CRISPR-Cas9, and high-throughput "big data" approaches (genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, etc.), we still do not know if and how parasites manipulate vector behaviour. Here, we review the latest research on arthropod vector sensory systems and propose key mechanisms that disease agents may alter to increase transmission.

Highlights, challenges, and perspectives in basic and applied chemical ecology of triatomines

Triatomines are vectors of Chagas disease. Due to failures in their control, there is an urgent need for more efficient and environmentally friendly monitoring and control tools. These hematophagous insects rely heavily on chemical information from the environment to detect hosts and cues/signals from conspecifics. Chemical ecology includes the elucidation of the functional role of chemicals mediating interactions between organisms. Studies on the chemical ecology of triatomines are leading to novel methods for their monitor and control. Thus, laboratory tests to develop chemical attractants and repellents are promissory and have led to the design of, for example, efficient baited traps. However, the monitoring and control tools proposed until now have not been as effective in the field.

Electrophysiological detection of visible wavelengths of artificial lights inducing take-off in adults of Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera: Triatominae)

Rhodnius prolixus is the most important vector of Trypanosoma cruzi in the northern part of South America. The compound eyes in adults of R. prolixus are involved in the nocturnal flight dispersion from sylvatic environments into human dwellings. During this behavior, the artificial lights play an important role in attracting R. prolixus; however, it is still not clear whether the compound eyes of this species use different visible wavelengths as a cue during active dispersion. We applied electrophysiological (electroretinography or ERG) and behavioral (take-off) experiments in a controlled laboratory setting to determine the spectral sensitivity of the compound eyes and the attraction of R. prolixus adults to discrete visible wavelengths. For the ERG experiments, flashes of 300 ms at wavelengths ranging between 350 and 700 nm at a constant intensity of 3.4 µW/cm2 were tested after adaptation to darkness and to blue and yellow lights. For the behavioral experiments, the adults were exposed to nine visible wavelengths at three different intensities, and their direction of take-off in an experimental arena was established with circular statistics. The ERG results showed peaks of spectral sensitivity at 470-490 nm and 520-550 nm in adults, while behavioral experiments showed attractions to blue, green and red lights, depending on the intensity of the light stimuli. The electrophysiological and behavioral results confirm that R. prolixus adults can detect certain wavelengths in the visible spectrum of light and be attracted to them during take-off.

Chagas Disease Ecology in the United States: Recent Advances in Understanding Trypanosoma cruzi Transmission Among Triatomines, Wildlife, and Domestic Animals and a Quantitative Synthesis of Vector-Host Interactions

Chagas disease, a neglected tropical disease present in the Americas, is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and is transmitted by triatomine kissing bug vectors. Hundreds of vertebrate host species are involved in the ecology of Chagas disease. The sylvatic nature of most triatomines found in the United States accounts for high levels of animal infections but few reports of human infections. This review focuses on triatomine distributions and animal infections in the southern United States. A quantitative synthesis of available US data from triatomine bloodmeal analysis studies shows that dogs, humans, and rodents are key taxa for feeding triatomines. Imperfect and unvalidated diagnostic tools in wildlife complicate the study of animal T. cruzi infections, and integrated vector management approaches are needed to reduce parasite transmission in nature. The diversity of animal species involved in Chagas disease ecology underscores the importance of a One Health approach for disease research and management. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Animal Biosciences, Volume 10 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Behavioral Response of the Tropical Bed Bug, Cimex hemipterus (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) to Carbon Dioxide

Bed bugs (Cimex spp.) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) are obligatory blood-sucking insects. Research on their behavioral response to host-derived olfactory cues will be helpful for designing more effective management tools. However, previous studies mainly focused on Cimex lectularius L., while the related studies on Cimex hemipterus (F.) have been rarely reported. In this study, we evaluated the behavioral responses of C. hemipterus to one of the crucial host-derived cues - carbon dioxide (CO2), at various concentrations. Pitfall traps baited with CO2 captured significantly more C. hemipterus (72%) than unbaited ones (28%). In the Y-tube test, bed bugs' exploratory activity (response rate) gradually decreased (from 70 to 27%) as the CO2 concentration increased (from 0.9 to 14.5%); and bed bugs exhibited a significant attraction to CO2 when the tested CO2 concentrations were between 0.9 and 7.3%. Cimex hemipterus were no longer attracted to CO2 after their antennae or mouthparts or both antennae and mouthparts were removed. In conclusion, C. hemipterus are attracted to CO2, and both antennae and mouthparts are important for CO2 perception.

The Olfactory Chemosensation of Hematophagous Hemipteran Insects

As one of the most abundant insect orders on earth, most Hemipteran insects are phytophagous, with the few hematophagous exceptions falling into two families: Cimicidae, such as bed bugs, and Reduviidae, such as kissing bugs. Many of these blood-feeding hemipteran insects are known to be realistic or potential disease vectors, presenting both physical and psychological risks for public health. Considerable researches into the interactions between hemipteran insects such as kissing bugs and bed bugs and their human hosts have revealed important information that deepens our understanding of their chemical ecology and olfactory physiology. Sensory mechanisms in the peripheral olfactory system of both insects have now been characterized, with a particular emphasis on their olfactory sensory neurons and odorant receptors. This review summarizes the findings of recent studies of both kissing bugs (including Rhodnius prolixus and Triatoma infestans) and bed bugs (Cimex lectularius), focusing on their chemical ecology and peripheral olfactory systems. Potential chemosensation-based applications for the management of these Hemipteran insect vectors are also discussed.

Trypanosoma cruzi infection in triatomines (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) from rural areas of the state of Pará, Brazil

The present study aimed to identify the triatomine species and evaluate Trypanosoma cruzi infection in insects captured in endemic areas of Pará State, Brazil. Triatomines were captured in nine rural communities in the municipality of São Domingos do Capim in August, September and December 2014 using active searches and Malaise and Noireau traps. Additionally, from 2014 to 2018, residents and community health agents submitted captured triatomines to the study team. The analysis of T. cruzi infection in the insects was performed by direct parasitological examination and nested-PCR. A total of 225 triatomines were captured and identified: Rhodnius robustus (n = 111), Rhodnius pictipes (n = 54), Panstrongylus geniculatus (n = 44), Eratyrus mucronatus (n = 11), Panstrongylus lignarius (n = 4), and Panstrongylus rufotuberculatus (n = 1). Direct parasitological examination was performed in 27 living triatomines R. robustus (n = 14), P. geniculatus (n = 7) and R. pictipes (n = 6) and metacyclic trypomastigote forms similar to those of T. cruzi were observed in 66.6% (18/27) samples. Of 174 samples analysed by nested-PCR, 81.6% were positive for T. cruzi DNA: R. robustus (84.7%; 72/85), R. pictipes (84.1%; 37/44), P. geniculatus (69.4%; 25/36), P. lignarius (100%; 4/4), E. mucronatus (75%; 3/4) and P. rufotuberculatus (100%; 1/1). R. robustus, R. pictipes and P. geniculatus were the main vectors of T. cruzi in the studied areas; however, the detection of infections in P. lignarius, E. mucronatus and P. rufotuberculatus indicated that these species can also act as potential vectors of T. cruzi in the study areas.

Surveillance of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in Triatomine vectors, feral dogs and cats, and wild animals in and around El Paso county, Texas, and New Mexico

The causative agent of Chagas disease, Trypanosoma cruzi, is transmitted by triatomine vectors. The insect is endemic in the Americas, including the United States, where epidemiological studies are limited, particularly in the Southwestern region. Here, we have determined the prevalence of T. cruzi in triatomines, feral cats and dogs, and wild animals, the infecting parasite genotypes and the mammalian host bloodmeal sources of the triatomines at four different geographical sites in the U.S.-Mexico border, including El Paso County, Texas, and nearby cities in New Mexico. Using qualitative polymerase chain reaction to detect T. cruzi infections, we found 66.4% (n = 225) of triatomines, 45.3% (n = 95) of feral dogs, 39.2% (n = 24) of feral cats, and 71.4% (n = 7) of wild animals positive for T. cruzi. Over 95% of T. cruzi genotypes or discrete typing units (DTUs) identified were TcI and some TcIV. Furthermore, Triatoma rubida was the triatomine species most frequently (98.2%) collected in all samples analyzed. These findings suggest a high prevalence of T. cruzi infections among triatomines, and feral and wild animals in the studied sites. Therefore, our results underscore the urgent need for implementation of a systematic epidemiological surveillance program for T. cruzi infections in insect vectors, and feral and wild animals, and Chagas disease in the human population in the southwestern region of the United States.

Chagas disease is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and one of the major transmission routes is the contaminated feces of blood-feeding triatomine insect vectors, popularly known as kissing bugs. In recent years, this disease has become an important public health concern to the United States and other nonendemic regions of the world. Despite many studies about the prevalence of T. cruzi in triatomines, and domestic, feral and wild animals in central and southern Texas, there have been no studies in west Texas and New Mexico. In this study, we report the presence of triatomines in residences in El Paso County, TX, and surrounding communities in New Mexico (cities of Anthony and Las Cruces), as well as T. cruzi infections in feral and wild animals. Using two molecular techniques to analyze the bloodmeal source in triatomines, we detected 12 different mammalian bloodmeal sources, including human and canine. Finally, parasite genotyping showed that most (95%) of the samples belonged to the genotype TcI, which is prevalent in North America. Our findings indicate that the El Paso County and surrounding communities (>950,000 people) are high risk areas for T. cruzi transmission to humans, feral cats and dogs, and wild animals. Thus, there is an urgent necessity for a public health epidemiological surveillance program for T. cruzi infections in kissing bugs, feral and wild animals, and in the human population in the U.S.-Mexico border region.

Modelling geospatial distributions of the triatomine vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi in Latin America

Approximately 150 triatomine species are suspected to be infected with the Chagas parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, but they differ in the risk they pose to human populations. The largest risk comes from species that have a domestic life cycle and these species have been targeted by indoor residual spraying campaigns, which have been successful in many locations. It is now important to consider residual transmission that may be linked to persistent populations of dominant vectors, or to secondary or minor vectors. The aim of this project was to define the geographical distributions of the community of triatomine species across the Chagas endemic region. Presence-only data with over 12, 000 observations of triatomine vectors were extracted from a public database and target-group background data were generated to account for sampling bias in the presence data. Geostatistical regression was then applied to estimate species distributions and fine-scale distribution maps were generated for thirty triatomine vector species including those found within one or two countries and species that are more widely distributed from northern Argentina to Guatemala, Bolivia to southern Mexico, and Mexico to the southern United States of America. The results for Rhodnius pictipes, Panstrongylus geniculatus, Triatoma dimidiata, Triatoma gerstaeckeri, and Triatoma infestans are presented in detail, including model predictions and uncertainty in these predictions, and the model validation results for each of the 30 species are presented in full. The predictive maps for all species are made publicly available so that they can be used to assess the communities of vectors present within different regions of the endemic zone. The maps are presented alongside key indicators for the capacity of each species to transmit T. cruzi to humans. These indicators include infection prevalence, evidence for human blood meals, and colonisation or invasion of homes. A summary of the published evidence for these indicators shows that the majority of the 30 species mapped by this study have the potential to transmit T. cruzi to humans.

Identification of Triatomines and Their Habitats in a Highly Developed Urban Environment

Eleven triatomine species, the vector for Chagas disease, are endemic in the southern U.S. While traditionally thought to only occur in rural habitats and sylvatic transmission cycles, recent studies provide compounding evidence that triatomines could exist in urban habitats and domestic transmission cycles in Texas. We conducted a study of active and passive surveillance techniques over 3 years (2016-2018) in the City of Houston, Harris County, Texas to determine the presence of triatomines in this metroplex. Active surveillance methods uncovered Triatoma sanguisuga nymphs from two locations in downtown Houston city parks. We also documented the first Trypanosoma cruzi positive kissing bug collected in an urban environment of Harris County, Texas. Our findings provide evidence that triatomines can be found in heavily populated U.S. urban environments, and warrant public health support for expanded triatomine and Chagas disease surveillance in city settings.