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Duffield GE. Circadian and daily rhythms of disease vector mosquitoes. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 63:101179. [PMID: 38395256 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2024.101179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Mosquitoes express a rich repertoire of daily 24-hour rhythms in biochemistry, physiology, and behavior. The nocturnal Anopheles and Culex and diurnal Aedes mosquitoes are major vectors of human disease, transmitting parasites and arboviruses, such as malaria and dengue. In this review, we explore the role that 24-hour diel and circadian rhythms play in shaping the temporal life of the mosquito. We focus on recent advances in our understanding of behavioral rhythms, focusing on locomotor/flight activity, host-seeking, biting/blood feeding, and mating. We examine the molecular circadian clock, photocycle, and light signals, which in combination shape the mosquito 24-hour temporal program. We address species- and sex-specific differences and highlight important selective pressures from dynamically changing environments. This work also provides new insights into disease transmission, insect control, and future experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giles E Duffield
- Department of Biological Sciences and Eck Institute for Global Health, Galvin Life Science Center, University of Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
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2
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Wynne NE, Applebach E, Chandrasegaran K, Ajayi OM, Chakraborty S, Bonizzoni M, Lahondère C, Benoit JB, Vinauger C. Aedes albopictus colonies from different geographic origins differ in their sleep and activity levels but not in the time of peak activity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.15.585187. [PMID: 38559099 PMCID: PMC10980008 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.15.585187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Mosquitoes occupy a wide range of habitats where they experience various environmental conditions. The ability of some species, such as the tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, to adapt to local conditions certainly contributes to their invasive success. Among traits that remain to be examined, mosquitoes' ability to time their activity with that of the local host population has been suggested to be of significant epidemiological importance. However, whether different populations display heritable differences in their chronotype has not been examined. Here, we compared laboratory strains originating from 8 populations from 3 continents, monitored their spontaneous locomotor activity patterns, and analyzed their sleep-like states. Overall, all strains showed conserved diurnal activity concentrated in the hours preceding the crepuscule. Similarly, they all showed increased sleep levels during the morning and night hours. However, we observed strain-specific differences in the activity levels at each phase of the day. We also observed differences in the fraction of time that each strain spends in a sleep-like state, explained by variations in the sleep architecture across strains. Human population density and the latitude of the site of geographic origin of the tested strain showed significant effects on sleep and activity patterns. Altogether, these results suggest that Ae. albopictus mosquitoes adapt to local environmental conditions via heritable adaptations of their chronotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E Wynne
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Emilie Applebach
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Karthikeyan Chandrasegaran
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Oluwaseun M Ajayi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA
| | - Souvik Chakraborty
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA
| | - Mariangela Bonizzoni
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Pavia 27100, Italy
| | - Chloé Lahondère
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Joshua B Benoit
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA
| | - Clément Vinauger
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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3
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Luker HA. A critical review of current laboratory methods used to evaluate mosquito repellents. FRONTIERS IN INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 4:1320138. [PMID: 38469342 PMCID: PMC10926509 DOI: 10.3389/finsc.2024.1320138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Pathogens transmitted by mosquitoes threaten human health around the globe. The use of effective mosquito repellents can protect individuals from contracting mosquito-borne diseases. Collecting evidence to confirm and quantify the effectiveness of a mosquito repellent is crucial and requires thorough standardized testing. There are multitudes of methods to test repellents that each have their own strengths and weaknesses. Determining which type of test to conduct can be challenging and the collection of currently used and standardized methods has changed over time. Some of these methods can be powerful to rapidly screen numerous putative repellent treatments. Other methods can test mosquito responses to specific treatments and measure either spatial or contact repellency. A subset of these methods uses live animals or human volunteers to test the repellency of treatments. Assays can greatly vary in their affordability and accessibility for researchers and/or may require additional methods to confirm results. Here I present a critical review that covers some of the most frequently used laboratory assays from the last two decades. I discuss the experimental designs and highlight some of the strengths and weaknesses of each type of method covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailey A. Luker
- Molecular Vector Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, United States
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4
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Dhungana P, Wei X, Meuti M, Sim C. Identification of CYCLE targets that contribute diverse features of circadian rhythms in the mosquito Culex pipiens. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART D, GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2023; 48:101140. [PMID: 37690215 PMCID: PMC10841209 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2023.101140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Culex pipiens demonstrates robust circadian rhythms in adult eclosion, flight activity, mating, and development. These rhythmic patterns are believed to be controlled by the endogenous light-entrainable circadian clock that consists of positive and negative regulators working in a transcription-translation feedback loop. Moreover, these mosquitoes undergo seasonal diapause in exposure to the short photoperiod of late summer or early fall. However, the exact genetic and cellular mechanism behind the clock gene-mediated activity pattern, seasonal time measurement, and subsequent diapause initiation still need to be unraveled. To determine the possible linkage between clock genes and downstream processes, here we employed ChIP-sequencing to identify the direct targets of one of the core clock proteins, Cycle (CYC). The nearest genes with peaks mapping to their 1Kb upstream region of the transcription start site were extracted and scanned for consensus E box sequences, resulting in a dataset comprising the target genes possibly regulated by CYC. Based on the highest fold enrichment and functional relevance, we identified genes relating to five gene categories of potential interest, including peptide/receptors, neurotransmission, olfaction, immunity, and reproductive growth. Of these, we validated fourteen genes with ChIP-qPCR and qRT-PCR. These genes showed a significantly high expression in dusk compared to dawn in concert with the activity level of the CYC transcription factor and are thus strong candidates for mediating circadian rhythmicity and possibly regulating seasonal shifts in mosquito reproductive activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabin Dhungana
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA. https://twitter.com/@Prabin_988
| | - Xueyan Wei
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | - Megan Meuti
- Department of Entomology, College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA. https://twitter.com/@MeganMeuti
| | - Cheolho Sim
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA.
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Ajayi OM, Wynne NE, Chen SC, Vinauger C, Benoit JB. Sleep: An Essential and Understudied Process in the Biology of Blood-Feeding Arthropods. Integr Comp Biol 2023; 63:530-547. [PMID: 37429615 PMCID: PMC10503478 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icad097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the biology of blood-feeding arthropods is critical to managing them as vectors of etiological agents. Circadian rhythms act in the regulation of behavioral and physiological aspects such as blood feeding, immunity, and reproduction. However, the impact of sleep on these processes has been largely ignored in blood-feeding arthropods, but recent studies in mosquitoes show that sleep-like states directly impact host landing and blood feeding. Our focus in this review is on discussing the relationship between sleep and circadian rhythms in blood-feeding arthropods along with how unique aspects such as blood gluttony and dormancy can impact sleep-like states. We highlight that sleep-like states are likely to have profound impacts on vector-host interactions but will vary between lineages even though few direct studies have been conducted. A myriad of factors, such as artificial light, could directly impact the time and levels of sleep in blood-feeding arthropods and their roles as vectors. Lastly, we discuss underlying factors that make sleep studies in blood-feeding arthropods difficult and how these can be bypassed. As sleep is a critical factor in the fitness of animal systems, a lack of focus on sleep in blood-feeding arthropods represents a significant oversight in understanding their behavior and its role in pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwaseun M Ajayi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA
| | - Nicole E Wynne
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Shyh-Chi Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA
| | - Clément Vinauger
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Joshua B Benoit
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA
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VanderGiessen M, Tallon AK, Damico B, Lahondère C, Vinauger C. Soap application alters mosquito-host interactions. iScience 2023; 26:106667. [PMID: 37250308 PMCID: PMC10214466 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
To find nutrients, mosquitoes use volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by plants and animal hosts. These resources overlap in their chemical composition, and an important layer of information resides in VOCs' relative abundance in the headspace of each resource. In addition, a large majority of the human species regularly uses personal care products such as soaps and perfumes, which add plant-related VOCs to their olfactory signature. Using headspace sampling and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, we quantified how human odor is modified by soap application. We showed that soaps alter mosquito host selection, with some soaps increasing the attractiveness of the host and some soaps reducing it. Analytical methods revealed the main chemicals associated with these changes. These results provide proof-of-concept that data on host-soap valences can be reverse-engineered to produce chemical blends for artificial baits or mosquito repellents, and evince the impact of personal care products on host selection processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgen VanderGiessen
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Anaïs K. Tallon
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Bryn Damico
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Chloé Lahondère
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- The Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- The Global Change Center, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens (CeZAP), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Clément Vinauger
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- The Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens (CeZAP), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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7
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Roth MA, Lahondère C, Gross AD. Discovering Aethina tumida responses to attractant and repellent molecules: A potential basis for future management strategies. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 192:105386. [PMID: 37105615 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2023.105386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Small hive beetle (Aethina tumida) management has been highly dependent upon chemical and mechanical control over the past two decades; however, many of these methods have not been consistently effective or safe for European honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies. Here we explore the behavioral and physiological effects of the attractants isopentyl acetate and pollen patty upon A. tumida adults, and also investigate the mixture of attractants with repellent compounds, which were previously untested against A. tumida. Electroantennograms established sensitivity of A. tumida antennae to both attractants and all repellents with the exception of DEET, with antennae displaying greatest sensitivity to the repellent pyrrolidine. A walking-response olfactometer, designed specifically for A. tumida, was used for all behavioral experiments. It was found that both pollen patty and isopentyl acetate were attractive to A. tumida adults; conversely, mixes of attractants and repellent volatiles led to less attraction or avoidance of what was previously a significantly attractive source. Of all repellents tested, pyrrolidine was found to be the most repelling molecule, with significant avoidance of the attractive source at a 10 mg treatment of pyrrolidine. The results of this study indicate that, at the behavioral level, the repellent compounds pyrrolidine and 1,4-dimethylpiperazine resulted in a negative preference index indicating a repellent behavioral response. By strategically implementing a repellent source in an apiary environment, A. tumida adults could be deterred from entering and invading hives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan A Roth
- Molecular Physiology and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
| | - Chloé Lahondère
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
| | - Aaron D Gross
- Molecular Physiology and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America.
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8
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Wynne NE, Chandrasegaran K, Fryzlewicz L, Vinauger C. Visual threats reduce blood-feeding and trigger escape responses in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21354. [PMID: 36494463 PMCID: PMC9734121 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25461-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The diurnal mosquitoes Aedes aegypti are vectors of several arboviruses, including dengue, yellow fever, and Zika viruses. To find a host to feed on, they rely on the sophisticated integration of olfactory, visual, thermal, and gustatory cues emitted by the hosts. If detected by their target, this latter may display defensive behaviors that mosquitoes need to be able to detect and escape in order to survive. In humans, a typical response is a swat of the hand, which generates both mechanical and visual perturbations aimed at a mosquito. Here, we used programmable visual displays to generate expanding objects sharing characteristics with the visual component of an approaching hand and quantified the behavioral response of female mosquitoes. Results show that Ae. aegypti is capable of using visual information to decide whether to feed on an artificial host mimic. Stimulations delivered in a LED flight arena further reveal that landed Ae. aegypti females display a stereotypical escape strategy by taking off at an angle that is a function of the direction of stimulus introduction. Altogether, this study demonstrates that mosquitoes landed on a host mimic can use isolated visual cues to detect and avoid a potential threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E. Wynne
- grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA ,grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Karthikeyan Chandrasegaran
- grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA ,grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Lauren Fryzlewicz
- grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA ,grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Clément Vinauger
- grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA ,grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
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Portilla Pulido JS, Urbina Duitama DL, Velasquez-Martinez MC, Mendez-Sanchez SC, Duque JE. Differentiation of action mechanisms between natural and synthetic repellents through neuronal electroantennogram and proteomic in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Sci Rep 2022; 12:20397. [PMID: 36437275 PMCID: PMC9701785 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24923-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural-based compounds with repellent activity arise nowadays with the possibility to replace commercial synthetic repellents wholly or partially, such as N,N-Diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). It is due to DEET's demonstrated toxicity and cutaneous irritation for human beings. Besides, research recommends avoiding using it with kids and pregnant women. The search for a repellent product implies early stages of detailed research that resolve the modes of action against the target insect. Therefore the objective of the current study was to analyze neuronal electrophysiological signals and olfactory system protein expression when the Aedes aegypti mosquito with exposition to natural-based repellents. Adult females of Ae. aegypti of Rockefeller strain were exposed to specific concentrations of repellent compounds like geranyl acetate, α-bisabolol, nerolidol, and DEET. The neuronal effect was measured by electroantennography technique, and the effect of exposure to either DEET or a mixture of natural molecules on protein expression was determined with 2D-PAGE followed by MALDI-TOF-mass spectrometry (MS). This approach revealed that DEET affected proteins related to synapses and ATP production, whereas natural-based repellents increased transport, signaling, and detoxification proteins. The proteomic and electrophysiology experiments demonstrated that repellent exposure disrupts ionic channel activity and modifies neuronal synapse and energy production processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Sebastián Portilla Pulido
- grid.411595.d0000 0001 2105 7207Grupo de Investigación en Bioquímica y Microbiología (GIBIM), Facultad de ciencias, Escuela de Química, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia ,grid.411595.d0000 0001 2105 7207Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Enfermedades Tropicales-CINTROP, Facultad de Salud, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Santander Colombia
| | - Diana Lizeth Urbina Duitama
- grid.411595.d0000 0001 2105 7207Grupo de Investigación en Bioquímica y Microbiología (GIBIM), Facultad de ciencias, Escuela de Química, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia ,grid.411595.d0000 0001 2105 7207Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Enfermedades Tropicales-CINTROP, Facultad de Salud, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Santander Colombia
| | - María Carolina Velasquez-Martinez
- grid.411595.d0000 0001 2105 7207Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Grupo de investigación en Neurociencias y Comportamiento UIS-UPB, Facultad de Salud, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Santander Colombia
| | - Stelia Carolina Mendez-Sanchez
- grid.411595.d0000 0001 2105 7207Grupo de Investigación en Bioquímica y Microbiología (GIBIM), Facultad de ciencias, Escuela de Química, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia
| | - Jonny Edward Duque
- grid.411595.d0000 0001 2105 7207Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Enfermedades Tropicales-CINTROP, Facultad de Salud, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Santander Colombia
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10
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Mosquito host-seeking diel rhythm and chemosensory gene expression is affected by age and Plasmodium stages. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18814. [PMID: 36335172 PMCID: PMC9637142 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-23529-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites can affect vector-related behaviours, increasing transmission success. Using Anopheles gambiae and Plasmodium falciparum, we consider the effect of interaction between infection stage and vector age on diel locomotion in response to human odour and the expression of antennal chemosensory genes. We identified age-dependent behavioural diel compartmentalisation by uninfected females post-blood meal. Infection disrupts overall and diel activity patterns compared with age-matched controls. In this study, mosquitoes carrying transmissible sporozoites were more active, shifting activity periods which corresponded with human host availability, in response to human odour. Older, uninfected, blood-fed females displayed reduced activity during their peak host-seeking period in response to human odour. Age- and infection stage-specific changes in odour-mediated locomotion coincide with altered transcript abundance of select chemosensory genes suggesting a possible molecular mechanism regulating the behaviour. We hypothesize that vector-related behaviours of female mosquitoes are altered by infection stage and further modulated by the age post-blood meal of the vector. Findings may have important implications for malaria transmission and disease dynamics.
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Adams DR, Golnar AJ, Meyers JI, Slotman MA, Hamer GL. Plasmodium relictum infection in Culex quinquefasciatus (Culicidae) decreases diel flight activity but increases peak dusk flight activity. Malar J 2022; 21:244. [PMID: 35996189 PMCID: PMC9396771 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-022-04265-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Parasites are recognized for their ability to modify host physiology and behaviours in ways that increase parasite fitness. Protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium are a group of widespread vector-borne parasites of vertebrates, causing disease to a wide range of hosts, but most notably to human and avian hosts. Methods The hypothesis that infection with the avian malaria, Plasmodium relictum (GRW4 lineage) impacts flight activity in one of their natural vectors, Culex quinquefasciatus, was tested using both parasites and mosquitoes colonized from local populations in East-Central Texas, USA. Groups of Cx. quinquefasciatus were allowed to feed directly on canaries with active P. relictum infections and control canaries with no P. relictum exposure history. Additionally, how P. relictum sporozoite invasion of mosquito salivary glands impacts mosquito flight activity behaviour was tested using a Locomotor Activity Monitor for both control and infected females. Generalized linear mixed models were used to evaluate the influence of infection status on the response variables of flight activity (continuous) and probability of flight occurring (binomial). Results Infection status was a significant predictor of flight activity and flight probability and interactions between infection status and experimental period of infection as well as infection status and dusk were statistically significant predictors of flight activity. Plasmodium relictum infected mosquitoes had a mean flight activity of 3.10 and control mosquitoes had an overall mean flight activity of 3.13. Discussion Based on these results, avian malaria parasites increase the flight activity of these mosquitoes at hours known for peak host-seeking behaviour but decrease overall diel activity. Conclusion Although the ramifications of this behavioural change for P. relictum transmission are unclear, these results provide additional empirical evidence suggesting that avian malaria can influence mosquito behaviour and modulate transmission potential. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12936-022-04265-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayvion R Adams
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.,Schubot Center for Avian Health, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, 4467 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Andrew J Golnar
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Jacob I Meyers
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Michel A Slotman
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Gabriel L Hamer
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
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12
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Abstract
Mosquitoes use multiple cues to locate food sources (animal and plants), mates, and oviposition sites. The sense of smell plays an important role in these behaviors, and olfactory cues are detected primarily by the appendages on the head-in particular, the antennae. Thus, mosquito olfaction can be studied by conducting electroantennogram (EAG) recordings. EAGs have emerged as a reliable technique to screen for bioactive compounds and are useful in the development of attractants and repellents for mosquito population control. Here, we focus on comparing the two main experimental approaches used in the literature (whole-body and whole-head mounting) and highlight key considerations for conducting EAGs in multiple species and for obtaining reliable and reproducible data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Lahondère
- Department of Biochemistry, Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
- The Fralin Life Science Institute, Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
- The Global Change Center, Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
- Department of Entomology, Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
- Center of Emerging, Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
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13
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Geissmann Q, Abram PK, Wu D, Haney CH, Carrillo J. Sticky Pi is a high-frequency smart trap that enables the study of insect circadian activity under natural conditions. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001689. [PMID: 35797311 PMCID: PMC9262196 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the face of severe environmental crises that threaten insect biodiversity, new technologies are imperative to monitor both the identity and ecology of insect species. Traditionally, insect surveys rely on manual collection of traps, which provide abundance data but mask the large intra- and interday variations in insect activity, an important facet of their ecology. Although laboratory studies have shown that circadian processes are central to insects' biological functions, from feeding to reproduction, we lack the high-frequency monitoring tools to study insect circadian biology in the field. To address these issues, we developed the Sticky Pi, a novel, autonomous, open-source, insect trap that acquires images of sticky cards every 20 minutes. Using custom deep learning algorithms, we automatically and accurately scored where, when, and which insects were captured. First, we validated our device in controlled laboratory conditions with a classic chronobiological model organism, Drosophila melanogaster. Then, we deployed an array of Sticky Pis to the field to characterise the daily activity of an agricultural pest, Drosophila suzukii, and its parasitoid wasps. Finally, we demonstrate the wide scope of our smart trap by describing the sympatric arrangement of insect temporal niches in a community, without targeting particular taxa a priori. Together, the automatic identification and high sampling rate of our tool provide biologists with unique data that impacts research far beyond chronobiology, with applications to biodiversity monitoring and pest control as well as fundamental implications for phenology, behavioural ecology, and ecophysiology. We released the Sticky Pi project as an open community resource on https://doc.sticky-pi.com.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Geissmann
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver (Unceded xʼməθkʼəýəm Musqueam Territory), British Columbia, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Paul K. Abram
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Di Wu
- Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver (Unceded xʼməθkʼəýəm Musqueam Territory), British Columbia, Canada
| | - Cara H. Haney
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Juli Carrillo
- Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver (Unceded xʼməθkʼəýəm Musqueam Territory), British Columbia, Canada
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14
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Shetty V, Meyers JI, Zhang Y, Merlin C, Slotman MA. Impact of disabled circadian clock on yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti fitness and behaviors. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6899. [PMID: 35478212 PMCID: PMC9046260 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10825-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Like other insects, Aedes aegypti displays strong daily patterns in host seeking and mating. Much of these behaviors are believed to be under the control of a circadian clock, an endogenous timekeeping mechanism relying on transcriptional/translational negative feedback loops that drive rhythmic physiology and behavior. To examine the connection between the circadian clock and various Ae. aegypti behaviors, we knocked out the core clock gene cycle using CRISPR/Cas9. We found that the rhythmic pattern and intensity of mRNA expression of seven circadian genes, including AeCyc−/−, were altered across the day/night cycle as well as in constant darkness conditions. We further show that the mutant CYC protein is incapable of forming a dimer with CLK to stimulate per expression and that the endogenous clock is disabled in AeCyc−/− mosquitoes. AeCyc−/− do not display the bimodal locomotor activity pattern of wild type, have a significantly reduced response to host odor, reduced egg hatching rates, delayed embryonic development and reduced adult survival and mating success. Surprisingly however, the propensity to blood feed in AeCyc−/− females is significantly higher than in wildtype females. Together with other recent work on the circadian clock control of key aspects of mosquito biology, our data on how cycle KO affects mosquito behavior and fitness provides a basis for further work into the pathways that connect the mosquito endogenous clock to its vector competence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinaya Shetty
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
| | - Jacob I Meyers
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Christine Merlin
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Michel A Slotman
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
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15
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Mosquito flight: Escaping attacks in dim light. Curr Biol 2022; 32:R279-R281. [PMID: 35349815 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.01.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To avoid fast attackers, animals must move somewhere their pursuer cannot follow or does not expect. A new study shows that female mosquitoes of either a diurnal or a nocturnal species each exhibit a distinct escape strategy matched to the light level they experience as they hunt for blood.
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16
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Scott-Fordsmand JJ, Fraceto LF, Amorim MJB. Nano-pesticides: the lunch-box principle-deadly goodies (semio-chemical functionalised nanoparticles that deliver pesticide only to target species). J Nanobiotechnology 2022; 20:13. [PMID: 34983544 PMCID: PMC8725254 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-021-01216-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Nature contains many examples of "fake promises" to attract "prey", e.g., predatory spiders that emit the same sex-attractant-signals as moths to catch them at close range and male spiders that make empty silk-wrapped gifts in order to mate with a female. Nano-pesticides should ideally mimic nature by luring a target and killing it without harming other organisms/species. Here, we present such an approach, called the lunch-box or deadly-goodies approach. The lunch-box consists of three main elements (1) the lure (semio-chemicals anchored on the box), (2) the box (palatable nano-carrier), and (3) the kill (advanced targeted pesticide). To implement this approach, one needs to draw on the vast amount of chemical ecological knowledge available, combine this with recent nanomaterial techniques, and use novel advanced pesticides. Precision nano-pesticides can increase crop protection and food production whilst lowering environmental impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - L F Fraceto
- Department of Environmental Engineering, São Paulo State University, Sorocaba, 18087-180, Brazil
| | - M J B Amorim
- Department of Biology & CESAM, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
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17
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Sivakala KK, Jose PA, Shamir M, C-N Wong A, Jurkevitch E, Yuval B. Foraging behaviour of medfly larvae is affected by maternally transmitted and environmental bacteria. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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18
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Traoré AS, Porciani A, Moiroux N, Dabiré RK, Simard F, Costantini C, Mouline K. Effects of insemination and blood-feeding on locomotor activity of wild-derived females of the malaria mosquito Anopheles coluzzii. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:457. [PMID: 34493324 PMCID: PMC8422633 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04967-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Behavioural shifts in the canonical location and timing of biting have been reported in natural populations of anopheline malaria vectors following the implementation of insecticide-based indoor vector control interventions. These modifications increase the likelihood of human-vector contact and allow mosquitoes to avoid insecticides, both conditions being favourable to residual transmission of the malarial parasites. The biting behaviour of mosquitoes follows rhythms that are under the control of biological clocks and environmental conditions, modulated by physiological states. In this work we explore modifications of spontaneous locomotor activity expressed by mosquitoes in different physiological states to highlight phenotypic variability associated to circadian control that may contribute to explain residual transmission in the field. METHODS The F10 generation progeny of field-collected Anopheles coluzzii from southwestern Burkina Faso was tested using an automated recording apparatus (Locomotor Activity Monitor, TriKinetics Inc.) under LD 12:12 or DD light regimens in laboratory-controlled conditions. Activity recordings of each test were carried out for a week with 6-day-old females belonging to four experimental treatments, representing factorial combinations of two physiological variables: insemination status (virgin vs inseminated) and gonotrophic status (glucose fed vs blood fed). Chronobiological features of rhythmicity in locomotor activity were explored using periodograms, diversity indices, and generalized linear mixed modelling. RESULTS The average strength of activity, onset of activity, and acrophase were modulated by both nutritional and insemination status as well as by the light regimen. Inseminated females showed a significant excess of arrhythmic activity under DD. When rhythmicity was observed in DD, females displayed sustained activity also during the subjective day. CONCLUSIONS Insemination and gonotrophic status influence the underlying light and circadian control of chronobiological features of locomotor activity. Overrepresentation of arrhythmic chronotypes as well as the sustained activity of inseminated females during the subjective day under DD conditions suggests potential activity of natural populations of A. coluzzii during daytime under dim conditions, with implications for residual transmission of malarial parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amadou S Traoré
- MIVEGEC, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France.
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de La Santé (IRSS), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.
- Agro Paris Tech, Institut Des Sciences Et Industries du Vivant Et de L'environnement, Université Paris-Saclay, Paris, France.
| | | | - Nicolas Moiroux
- MIVEGEC, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de La Santé (IRSS), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Roch K Dabiré
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de La Santé (IRSS), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | | | | | - Karine Mouline
- MIVEGEC, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de La Santé (IRSS), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
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19
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Abstract
Mosquitoes are emerging as model systems with which to study innate behaviours through neuroethology and functional genomics. Decades of work on these disease vectors have provided a solid behavioural framework describing the distinct repertoire of predominantly odour-mediated behaviours of female mosquitoes, and their dependence on life stage (intrinsic factors) and environmental cues (extrinsic factors). The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of how intrinsic factors, including adult maturation, age, nutritional status, and infection, affect the attraction to plants and feeding on plant fluids, host seeking, blood feeding, supplemental feeding behaviours, pre-oviposition behaviour, and oviposition in female mosquitoes. With the technological advancements in the recent two decades, we have gained a better understanding of which volatile organic compounds are used by mosquitoes to recognise and discriminate among various fitness-enhancing resources, and characterised their neural and molecular correlates. In this review, we present the state of the art of the peripheral olfactory system as described by the neural physiology, functional genomics, and genetics underlying the demonstrated changes in the behavioural repertoire in female mosquitoes. The review is meant as a summary introduction to the current conceptual thinking in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon R Hill
- Disease Vector Group, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Växtskyddsvägen 3, 23053, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Rickard Ignell
- Disease Vector Group, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Växtskyddsvägen 3, 23053, Alnarp, Sweden.
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20
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Dengue infection modulates locomotion and host seeking in Aedes aegypti. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008531. [PMID: 32911504 PMCID: PMC7482838 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogens may manipulate their human and mosquito hosts to enhance disease transmission. Dengue, caused by four viral serotypes, is the fastest-growing transmissible disease globally resulting in 50-100 million infections annually. Transmission of the disease relies on the interaction between humans and the vector Aedes aegypti and is largely dependent on the odor-mediated host seeking of female mosquitoes. In this study, we use activity monitors to demonstrate that dengue virus-1 affects the locomotion and odor-mediated behavior of Ae. aegypti, reflecting the progression of infection within the mosquito. Mosquitoes 4-6 days post-infection increase locomotion, but do not alter their odor-driven host-seeking response. In contrast, females 14-16 days post-infection are less active, yet more sensitive to human odors as assessed by behavioral and electrophysiological assays. Such an increase in physiological and behavioral sensitivity is reflected by the antennal-specific increase in abundance of neural signaling transcripts in 14 days post-infection females, as determined by transcriptome analysis. This suggests that the sensitivity of the mosquito peripheral olfactory system is altered by the dengue virus by enhancing the overall neural responsiveness of the antenna, rather than the selective regulation of chemosensory-related genes. Our study reveals that dengue virus-1 enhances vector-related behaviors in the early stages post-infection that aid in avoiding predation and increasing spatial exploration. On the other hand, at the later stages of infection, the virus enhances the host-seeking capacity of the vector, thereby increasing the risk of virus transmission. A potential mechanism is discussed.
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21
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Wynne NE, Lorenzo MG, Vinauger C. Mechanism and plasticity of vectors' host-seeking behavior. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2020; 40:1-5. [PMID: 32199240 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2020.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The host-seeking behavior of disease vector insects is central to the transmission of pathogens. In this context, an improved understanding of the mechanisms that allow vectors to detect, identify and locate a potential host will be crucial to refine existing control strategies and invent new ones. Host-seeking is mediated by the integration of cues that are processed by multiple sensory modalities, and provide robust information about host location and quality. Responses to these cues are plastic and vary as a function of the vector's internal state, age, and previous experience. Vectors also integrate other factors such as time of day, or even the level of defensiveness of the host. Here, we review the most recent advances on the molecular basis of host-seeking behavior, with a particular emphasis on disease vector mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E Wynne
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Marcelo G Lorenzo
- Instituto René Rachou/FIOCRUZ, Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715, Barro Preto, CEP: 30 190 009, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Clément Vinauger
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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22
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Upshur IF, Bose EA, Hart C, Lahondère C. Temperature and Sugar Feeding Effects on the Activity of a Laboratory Strain of Aedes aegypti. INSECTS 2019; 10:E347. [PMID: 31623118 PMCID: PMC6835249 DOI: 10.3390/insects10100347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Aedes aegypti is an invasive mosquito species that is expected to expand its global distribution through climate change. As poikilotherms, mosquitoes are greatly affected by the temperature of the environment which can impact host-seeking, blood-feeding, and flight activity as well as survival and ability to transmit pathogens. However, an important aspect of mosquito biology on which the effect of temperature has not been investigated is water and sugar-feeding and how access to a sugar source might affect the insect's activity and survival under different thermal conditions. To close this knowledge gap, we relied on actometer experiments to study the activity of both female and male Ae. aegypti at 20 °C, 25 °C, and 30 °C, providing either water or 10% sucrose to the insects. We then measured the total carbohydrate contents of alive mosquitoes using the anthrone protocol. Survival was assessed and compared between all groups. Results from this study will inform on the thermal biology of Ae. aegypti mosquitoes and how access to sugar affects their activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irvin Forde Upshur
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Elizabeth Annadel Bose
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Cameron Hart
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Chloé Lahondère
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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23
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Carrasco D, Lefèvre T, Moiroux N, Pennetier C, Chandre F, Cohuet A. Behavioural adaptations of mosquito vectors to insecticide control. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2019; 34:48-54. [PMID: 31247417 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2019.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Behavioural resistance to insecticides may be an important factor restraining the efficacy of vector control against mosquito-transmitted diseases. However, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying such behavioural resistance remains sparse. In this review, we focus on the behavioural adaptations of mosquito vectors in response to the use of insecticides and provide a general framework for guiding future investigations. We present our review of vector behaviour in the field and a conceptual classification of behavioural adaptations to insecticides. We emphasise that behavioural adaptations can result from constitutive or induced (i.e. phenotypically plastic) traits. Lastly, we identify gaps in knowledge limiting a better understanding of how mosquito behavioural adaptations may affect the fight against vector-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Carrasco
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Thierry Lefèvre
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Nicolas Moiroux
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Cédric Pennetier
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Cote d'Ivoire
| | - Fabrice Chandre
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Anna Cohuet
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
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