Recent Advances in Sodium Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Its Future Role in Kidney Disease

In vivo assessment of pediatric kidney function using multi-parametric and multi-nuclear functional magnetic resonance imaging: challenges, perspectives, and clinical applications

The conventional methods for assessing kidney function, such as glomerular filtration rate and microalbuminuria, provide only partial insight into kidney function. Multi-parametric and multi-nuclear functional resonance magnetic imaging (MRI) techniques are innovative approaches to unraveling kidney physiology. Multi-parametric MRI includes various sequences to evaluate kidney perfusion, tissue oxygenation, and microstructure characterization, including fibrosis-a key pathological event in acute and chronic kidney disease and in transplant patients-without the need for invasive kidney biopsy. Multi-nuclear MRI detects nuclei other than protons. 23Na MRI enables visualization of the corticomedullary gradient and assessment of tissue sodium storage, which can be particularly relevant for personalized medicine in salt-wasting tubular disorders. Meanwhile, 31P-MRS measures intracellular phosphate and ATP variations, providing insights into oxidative metabolism in the muscle during exercise and recovery. This technique can be useful for detecting subclinical ischemia in chronic kidney disease and in tubulopathies with kidney phosphate wasting. These techniques are non-invasive and do not involve radiation exposure, making them especially suitable for longitudinal and serial assessments. They enable in vivo evaluation of kidney function on a whole-organ basis within a short acquisition time and with the ability to distinguish between medullary and cortical compartments. Therefore, they offer considerable potential for pediatric patients. In this review, we provide a brief overview of the main imaging techniques, summarize available literature data on both adult and pediatric populations, and examine the perspectives and challenges associated with multi-parametric and multi-nuclear MRI.

The role of intra- and interdialytic sodium balance and restriction in dialysis therapies

The relationship between sodium, blood pressure and extracellular volume could not be more pronounced or complex than in a dialysis patient. We review the patients' sources of sodium exposure in the form of dietary salt intake, medication administration, and the dialysis treatment itself. In addition, the roles dialysis modalities, hemodialysis types, and dialysis fluid sodium concentration have on blood pressure, intradialytic symptoms, and interdialytic weight gain affect patient outcomes are discussed. We review whether sodium restriction (reduced salt intake), alteration in dialysis fluid sodium concentration and the different dialysis types have any impact on blood pressure, intradialytic symptoms, and interdialytic weight gain.