Dose-Response Relationship between Exercise Duration and Executive Function in Older Adults

The effect of exercise on balance function in stroke patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVE

A growing body of studies has examined the effect of exercise on balance function in stroke patients, with conflicting findings. This study aimed to investigate the effect of exercise on balance function in stroke patients and to determine the optimal exercise prescription for stroke patients.

METHODS

We conducted an extensive search across various databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Cochrane, and Scopus. The search was conducted until March 11th, 2024. Data were pooled using the weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence interval.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Exercise significantly improved Berg balance scale (BBS, WMD, 5.24, P < 0.00001) and timed up and go test (TUG, WMD, - 2.91, P < 0.00001) in stroke patients. Subgroup analyses showed that aerobic exercise (WMD, 6.71, P = 0.003), exercise conducted ≥ 8 weeks (WMD, 6.43, P < 0.00001), > 3 times per week (WMD, 6.18, P < 0.00001), ≥ 60 min per session (WMD, 6.40, P < 0.0001), and ≥ 180 min per week (WMD, 7.49, P < 0.00001) were more effective in improving BBS.

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise improved balance function in stroke patients, and aerobic exercise might be the most effective intervention. To improve balance function, this meta-analysis provides clinicians with evidence to recommend that stroke patients participate in a minimum of 8 weeks of exercise at least 3 times per week for more than 60 min per session, with a goal of 180 min per week being achieved by increasing the frequency of exercise.

Effects of exercise on post-stroke cognitive function: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

A growing body of research examining the effect of exercise on cognitive function in stroke patients, while findings of available studies were conflicting.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to estimate the effect of exercise on cognitive function in stroke patients.

METHODS

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane, and Scopus electronic databases, through 13 March 2023. The three-level restricted maximum likelihood random effects model was used to synthesize the data.

RESULTS

Twenty-five studies met the inclusion criteria. There was a significant effect of exercise on improving cognitive function in stroke patients (Cohen's d = 0.37, 95% CI, 0.16 to 0.58, p < 0.01, I2  = 22.12%). Subgroup analysis showed that exercise significantly improved memory. In addition, aerobic exercise, exercise conducted 12 weeks or more, 3 times or more per week, less than 60 minutes per session, less than 180 minutes per week, and up to 12 months post-stroke increased cognitive function significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise improved cognitive function in stroke patients. To improve cognitive function, this meta-analysis provides clinicians with evidence to recommend that stroke patients participate in aerobic exercise at least 3 times per week for 30-60 minutes, with a goal of 180 minutes per week being achieved by increasing the frequency of exercise. Exercise initiated within 12 months post-stroke and continued for 12 weeks or more is most beneficial for improving cognitive function.

Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Functions among College Students in China: Exploring the Influence of Exercise Intensity and Duration

BACKGROUND

This study investigates the effects of exercise intensity and duration on executive functions among college students in China.

METHOD

Participants in this study were Chinese college students divided into four groups based on exercise duration and intensity. Each group engaged in physical exercise twice a week for six weeks. Group 1 performed low-intensity exercises for 10 min per session; Group 2 performed low-intensity exercises for 20 min per session; Group 3 performed high-intensity exercises for 10 min per session; and Group 4 performed high-intensity exercise for 20 min per session. Executive functions were assessed in all subjects before the experiment (time 1), after one exercise session (time 2), at the end of the exercise program (time 3), and six weeks after the exercise program (time 4). A mixed ANOVA with a 2 (exercise intensity: low/high) × 2 (duration: short/long) × 4 (time of measurement: time 1/time 2/time 3/time 4) design was employed, with exercise intensity and exercise duration as independent variables and executive functions as the dependent variable.

RESULTS

Mixed ANOVA showed that the results revealed a significant main effect of measurement time on working memory accuracy (p < 0.001) and reaction time (p < 0.001); inhibition control accuracy (p < 0.001) and reaction time (p < 0.001); cognitive flexibility accuracy (p < 0.001) and reaction time (p < 0.001). A single session of high-intensity exercise significantly improved executive functions in college students. Both low-intensity and high-intensity exercise were effective in enhancing executive functions, with high-intensity exercise demonstrating better maintenance of the effect.

CONCLUSION

Both exercise intensity and exercise duration were found to enhance executive functions in college students, with exercise intensity showing greater effectiveness than exercise duration.

The effect of exercise on cognitive function in people with multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVE

A growing body of research examining the effect of exercise on cognitive function in people with multiple sclerosis (MS), while findings of available studies were conflicting. We aimed to explore the effect of exercise on cognitive function in MS patients.

METHODS

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Cochrane, and Scopus electronic databases, through July 18, 2022. Cochrane risk assessment tool was used to evaluate the methodological quality of the included literature.

RESULTS

Twenty-one studies with a total of 23 experimental groups and 21 control groups met the inclusion criteria. There was a significant effect of exercise on improving cognitive function in MS patients, while the effect size was small (Cohen's d = 0.20, 95% CI 0.06-0.34, p < 0.001, I² = 39.31%). Subgroup analysis showed that exercise significantly improved memory (Cohen's d = 0.17, 95% CI 0.02-0.33, p = 0.03, I² = 7.59%). In addition, multicomponent training, exercise conducted 8 weeks and 10 weeks, up to 60 min per session, 3 times or more per week, 180 min or more per week increased cognitive function significantly. Furthermore, a worse basal MS status (defined by the Expanded Disability Status Scale) and an older age were associated with greater improvement in cognitive function.

CONCLUSION

MS patients are recommended to participate in at least three multicomponent training sessions per week, with each session lasting up to 60 min, and the exercise goal of 180 min per week can be achieved by increasing the frequency of exercise. Exercise lasting 8 or 10 weeks is best for cognitive function improvement. Additionally, a worse basal MS status, or the older the age, the greater effect on cognitive function.

Effectiveness of a Single Prolonged Aerobic Exercise Session on Executive Function Task Performance in Physically Active Adults (21-70 Years of Age)

We sought to examine the effectiveness of an acute prolonged exercise session on post-exercise executive function in physically active adults and to assess if age or pre-exercise cognitive performance was predictive of the magnitude of change in executive task performance. Self-registered cyclists were recruited prior to participating in a 161-km mass-participation cycling event. Cyclists were excluded if they had not previously participated in a similar endurance event, were young (<18 y), or were cognitively impaired (Mini CogTM < 3 units). Immediately after completing the exercise session, the time taken to complete Trail Making Test Part A and Part B (TMT A + B) was assessed. A faster time to complete the TMT A + B was observed after exercise (+8.5%; p = 0.0003; n = 62; age range = 21-70 y). The magnitude of change in TMT A + B performance (pre vs. post) was influenced by pre-exercise TMT A + B performance (r2 = 0.23, p < 0.0001), not age (r2 =0.002; p = 0.75). Prolonged exercise had a small-to-moderate effect on post-exercise compared to pre-exercise executive function task performance (Cohen's d = 0.38-0.49). These results support the effectiveness of a single prolonged exercise bout to augment executive function in physically active adults, irrespective of age.

The Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Cognitive Function in People with Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

A growing body of research has examined the effect of aerobic exercise on cognitive function in people with Alzheimer's Disease (AD), but the findings of the available studies were conflicting. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of aerobic exercise on cognitive function in AD patients. Searches were performed in PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases from the inception of indexing until 12 November 2021. Cochrane risk assessment tool was used to evaluate the methodological quality of the included literature. From 1942 search records initially identified, 15 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were considered eligible for systematic review and meta-analysis. Included studies involved 503 participants in 16 exercise groups (mean age: 69.2-84 years) and 406 participants (mean age: 68.9-84 years) in 15 control groups. There was a significant effect of aerobic exercise on increasing mini-mental state examination (MMSE) score in AD patients [weighted mean difference (WMD), 1.50 (95% CI, 0.55 to 2.45), p = 0.002]. Subgroup analyses showed that interventions conducted 30 min per session [WMD, 2.52 (95% CI, 0.84 to 4.20), p = 0.003], less than 150 min per week [WMD, 2.10 (95% CI, 0.84 to 3.37), p = 0.001], and up to three times per week [WMD, 1.68 (95% CI, 0.46 to 2.89), p = 0.007] increased MMSE score significantly. In addition, a worse basal cognitive status was associated with greater improvement in MMSE score. Our analysis indicated that aerobic exercise, especially conducted 30 min per session, less than 150 min per week, and up to three times per week, contributed to improving cognitive function in AD patients. Additionally, a worse basal cognitive status contributed to more significant improvements in cognitive function.

Effect of acute physical exercise on inhibitory control in young adults: High-intensity indoor cycling session

There is growing evidence that physical exercise (PE) may boost cognitive performance. However, criteria regarding PE intensity, duration, and frequency are still being studied. We hypothesize that high PE intensities have effects on inhibitory control. For this reason, our aim was to study the effect of acute PE on IC in healthy young students of a bachelor's degree in physical education and exercise via a 20-minute indoor cycling session at 80-90% HRmax intensity. We devised an experimental group design (n = 9) relative to a control group (n = 10) with pre-and-post-test IC measures. A Stroop task (two conditions) was administered to undergraduate students (Mage = 23.3, SD = 1.6) of a bachelor's degree program in Physical Education and Sports Sciences from a public university in Colombia. The computed MANOVA did not show an interaction effect between the experimental task of Stroop A-B x measure x group. However, a main effect of reduced response time was obtained after PE in the experimental group. Other main effects were observed in the number of correct and incorrect trials in the Stroop-B condition. The experimental group showed fewer correct answers after PE, and the control group showed fewer errors. It is concluded that high-intensity PE confers favorable effects on inhibitory control.

Effects of Acute Exercise on Cognitive Flexibility in Young Adults with Different Levels of Aerobic Fitness

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) on cognitive flexibility in young adults with differing levels of aerobic fitness. Sixty-six young adults were grouped into high- and low-fit groups based on their final running distance on the 20 m Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test. Individuals participated in a 10 min HIIE, a 20 min HIIE, a 20 min MICE, and a control session (reading quietly in a chair) in a counterbalanced order. The more-odd shifting task was completed before and approximately 5 min after each intervention to assess cognitive flexibility. The results showed that young adults with a high fitness level gained greater benefits in terms of switch cost from the 20 min HIIE, while low-fitness participants benefited more from the 10 min HIIE and the 20 min MICE. These findings suggest that aerobic fitness may influence the effect of acute HIIE and MICE on cognitive flexibility. Young adults should consider individual fitness level when adopting time-effective and appropriate exercise routines to improve cognitive flexibility.

Does acute exercise benefit emotion regulation? Electrophysiological evidence from affective ratings and implicit emotional effects on cognition

Negative affect impacts cognition, and sometimes may interfere with cognitive function. Furthermore, emotion regulation is thought to play an important role in easing the suffering from negative affect. However, whether acute exercise could ease the emotional interference caused by unconscious affect on cognitive control, remains to be investigated. To test this, we used behavioral measures combined with event-related potentials (ERPs) to specifically investigate (i) the impacts of negative affect evoked by implicit cues on conflict inhibition (Flanker task), and (ii) whether acute exercise could mitigate these effects. Furthermore, we examined (iii) the impact of acute exercise on frontal alpha asymmetry as an index of cognitive emotional down-regulation to emotional stressors. Forty young women (age range from 18 to 26) were randomly assigned to either a control group (n = 20) or an exercise group (n = 20), and a repeated-measures design with a space of one week between measures was conducted. Results demonstrated that negative Flanker trials produced larger N1 amplitude but smaller N200 amplitude than neutral trials; furthermore, acute exercise could mitigate emotional effects on N1. However, significant effects of acute exercise on the resting and responding frontal alpha asymmetry were not found. The distinct direction of the impacts of negative affect on cognition are discussed together with implications about the effects of attention allocation on exercise-enhanced emotion regulation.

Daily Level Association of Physical Activity and Performance on Ecological Momentary Cognitive Tests in Free-living Environments: A Mobile Health Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Research suggests that physical activity (PA) has both acute and chronic beneficial effects on cognitive function in laboratory settings and under supervised conditions. Mobile health technologies make it possible to reliably measure PA and cognition in free-living environments, thus increasing generalizability and reach. Research is needed to determine whether the benefits of PA on cognitive function extend from the laboratory to real-world contexts.

OBJECTIVE

This observational study aims to examine the association between daily fluctuations in PA and cognitive performance using mobile health technologies in free-living environments.

METHODS

A total of 90 adults (mean age 59, SD 6.3 years; 65/90, 72% men) with various comorbidities (eg, cardiovascular risk and HIV) and different levels of baseline cognition (ranging from cognitively normal to impaired) completed ecological momentary cognitive tests (EMCTs) on a smartphone twice daily while wearing an accelerometer to capture PA levels for 14 days. Linear mixed-effects models examined the daily associations of PA with executive function and verbal learning EMCTs. Moderation analyses investigated whether the relationship between daily PA and daily performance on EMCTs changed as a function of baseline cognition, cardiovascular risk, and functional status (independent vs dependent).

RESULTS

Days with greater PA were associated with better (faster) performance on an executive function EMCT after covariate adjustment (estimate -0.013; β=-.16; P=.04). Moderation analyses (estimate 0.048; β=.58; P=.001) indicated that days with greater PA were associated with better (faster) executive function performance in individuals who were functionally dependent (effect size -0.53; P<.001) and not in functionally independent adults (effect size -0.01; P=.91).

CONCLUSIONS

EMCTs may be a sensitive tool for capturing daily-level PA-related fluctuations in cognitive performance in real-world contexts and could be a promising candidate for tracking cognitive performance in digital health interventions aimed at increasing PA. Further research is needed to determine individual characteristics that may moderate the association between daily PA and EMCT performance in free-living environments.

Effects of physical exercise on working memory in older adults: a systematic and meta-analytic review

Background

This systematic and meta-analytic review aimed to investigate the effects of physical exercise on the working memory of older adults, and to identify the moderators of these effects.

Methods

We searched six electronic databases for randomized controlled trials on the effects of physical exercise on working memory that were published before or on May 15, 2020. The PEDro scale was used to evaluate the methodological quality of the included studies. Stata 14.0 software was used to perform the meta-analysis, subgroup analysis, and publication bias testing.

Results

A total of 28 studies and 2156 participants were included. The methodological quality of the included studies was fair to excellent, and there was no publication bias. Overall, we found that physical exercise had a significant effect on working memory in older adults (standardized mean difference = 0.30, p < 0.0001). The effects of physical exercise on working memory were moderated by exercise frequency, intensity, type, duration, cognitive status, and control subgroup (active/passive), but not by intervention period or age of participant.

Conclusion

Physical exercise can effectively improve the working memory of older adults. The recommended physical exercise is multi-component exercise or mind–body exercise of moderate intensity for 45–60 min 3 times a week, for more than 6 months.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s11556-021-00272-y.

Comparison of the Sustainability Effects of High-Intensity Interval Exercise and Moderate-Intensity Continuous Exercise on Cognitive Flexibility

This study examined the immediate and sustained effects of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) on cognitive flexibility in young adults. Participants (n = 56) engaged in (1) a session of HIIE, involving 10 sets of one-minute treadmill running at an intensity targeting 90% heart rate reserve (HRR) interspersed with self-paced walking at 50% HRR; (2) a session of MICE, involving a 20 min treadmill running at an intensity of 40-59% HRR; and (3) a control session, involving 24 min of resting on separate days in a counterbalanced order. Using a more-odd shifting task, cognitive flexibility was assessed before the intervention (t0), immediately after the session (t1), and then at 30 min (t2) after the session. During the more-odd shifting task, the switch cost of response time (RT) immediately after the HIIE was significantly reduced compared to that before exercise, suggesting beneficial effects on cognitive flexibility. Additionally, the impacts of HIIE were maintained for 30 min post-exercise. However, improved cognitive flexibility was not observed until 30 min after the MICE intervention. HIIE might represent a time-efficient approach for enhancing cognitive flexibility.

Change in GPS-assessed walking locations following a cluster-randomized controlled physical activity trial in older adults, results from the MIPARC trial

This study employed novel GPS methods to assess the effect of a multilevel physical activity (PA) intervention on device-measured walking locations in 305 community dwelling older adults, ages 65+ (mean age = 83, 73% women). Retirement communities were randomized to a 1-year PA intervention that encouraged neighborhood walking, or to a healthy aging control condition. Total time and time spent walking in four life-space domains were assessed using GPS and accelerometer devices. The intervention increased the time spent walking as a proportion of total time spent in the Campus, Neighborhood and Beyond Neighborhood domains. Intervention effects on walking location were observed in both genders and across physical and cognitive functioning groups. Results demonstrate that an intervention providing individual, social and environmental support for walking can increase PA in larger life-space domains for a broad spectrum of older adults.

The Effect of Acute High-Intensity Interval Training on Executive Function: A Systematic Review

Acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a time-efficient strategy to improve physical health; however, the effect of acute HIIT on executive function (EF) is unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the existing evidence and quantify the effect of acute HIIT on overall EF and the factors affecting the relationship between acute HIIT and EF. Standard databases (i.e., the PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and CENTRAL databases) were searched for studies that examined the effect of acute HIIT on EF and were published up until January 2021. The overall EF and factors grouped by three categories, namely, EF assessment characteristics, exercise intervention characteristics, and sample and study characteristics, were analyzed by percentage of comparison for positive or null/negative effects. Overall, 35 of 57 outcomes (61%) across 24 studies revealed that acute HIIT has a positive effect on overall EF. In terms of factors, the results indicated that among EF assessment characteristics, groups, inhibition, updating, and the assessment occurring within 30 min may moderate the effect of acute HIIT on EF, while among exercise intervention characteristics, total time within 11 to 30 min may moderate the effect. Finally, among sample characteristics, age under 40 years may moderate the effect. Acute HIIT is generally considered a viable alternative for eliciting EF gains, with factors related to EF components, timing of the assessment, exercise total time, and age potentially moderating the effect of HIIT on EF.

Acute Exercise-Induced Set Shifting Benefits in Healthy Adults and Its Moderators: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Positive effects of acute exercise on cognitive performances in general inspired research that investigated the effects of acute exercise on specific cognitive subdomains. Many existing studies examined beneficial effects of acute exercise on subsequent set shifting performance in healthy adults. Set shifting, a subdomain of executive function, is the ability to switch between different cognitive sets. The results of existing studies are inconsistent. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted that pooled available effect sizes. Additionally, moderator analyses were carried out to identify covariates that determine the magnitude of exercise-induced set shifting benefits.

Methods: Medline, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus were searched for eligible studies. Hedges' g corrected standardized mean difference values were used for analyses. Random-effects weights were applied to pool effects. Potential moderation of the effect of acute exercise on subsequent set shifting performance by exercise intensity, type of exercise, participants' age, and type of control group were examined.

Results: Twenty-two studies (N = 1,900) were included into analysis. All aggregated effect sizes ranged from small to moderate. Overall, a small significant beneficial effect was revealed (g = −0.32, 95 % CI −0.45 to −0.18). Heterogeneity of included effect sizes was moderate and significant (T² = 0.0715, I² = 46.4%, (p < 0.0016). Moderator analyses revealed a larger average effect in older adults than for studies examining younger adults (−0.42 vs. −0.29). Light exercise (−0.51) led to larger effects than moderate (−0.24) or vigorous exercise (−0.29). Studies testing acute exercise against active control groups showed a noticeably smaller average effect (−0.13) than studies that used passive (−0.38) or cognitive engaging control groups (−0.34). Interestingly, application of resistance or aerobic exercise led to no different average effect sizes (−0.30 vs. −0.32). However, none of the tested covariates reached statistical significance.

Conclusion: Acute exercise improves subsequent set shifting performance. However, effect sizes are small, making the relevance for everyday life questionable. The results indicate that older adults benefit more from acute exercise than younger adults do. Light intensity exercise seems most effective while the type of exercise does not seem to influence the magnitude of effects. Research designs with active control groups show the smallest average effect, raising concerns about placebo effects.

PROSPERO registration number: CRD42019138799

Effects of Tai Chi Chuan on Cognitive Function in Older Adults with Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic and Meta-Analytic Review

This systematic and meta-analytic review aimed to investigate the effects of Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) on the cognitive function of the elderly with cognitive impairment and to analyze the moderators of these effects. We searched eight electronic databases for randomized controlled trials on the effects of TCC on cognitive function, published up to June 14, 2020. The PEDro scale was used to evaluate the methodological quality of the included literature. Stata14.0 software was used for meta-analysis, subgroup analysis, and publication bias testing. A total of 19 studies and 1,970 samples were included. The methodological quality of the included literature was fair to good, and there was no publication bias. Overall, the research shows that the effect of TCC on the elderly with cognitive impairment is statistically significant (SMD = 0.31, p < 0.0001). Five of the cognitive function subdomains were significant moderators [Q (5) = 15.66, p=0.008], and the effect size (ES) was the largest for global cognitive function (SMD = 0.41), followed by executive function (SMD = 0.33), memory (SMD = 0.31), and verbal fluency (SMD = 0.27). Regarding the exercise prescription variables, results were significantly moderated by the length of exercise training [Q (2) = 6.00, p=0.05], with ESs largest for moderate length (SMD = 0.41), followed by short length (SMD = 0.40) and long length (SMD = 0.29). However, the results were not moderated by session time or frequency. TCC can improve multiple cognitive functions of the elderly with cognitive impairment. The intervention effects are moderated by exercise length, but not by exercise session time and frequency.

Differences in dual task paradigms and executive function ability for recreational athletes in United Arab Emirates

[Purpose] The purpose of this study to measure four components of executive function: (1) cognitive flexibility, (2) inhibition, (3) working memory and (4) processing speed, along with the ability to dual task in recreational athletes. [Participants and Methods] This was a cross-sectional study of (n=102) male and female participants, between the ages of 18–40 years of age across different levels and types of sport related physical activity. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), short version, Dual Task Abilities (DTA) were measured utilizing a quantitative, dual task, gait test and Executive Function (EF) was measured through Stroop Color Word Test and Trail Making Test. [Results] Differences in EF and Dual Task-Interference (DTI) in recreational athletes did not show a significant difference between varying types of sport and level of sport related activity, with reported values high across all groups. Males reported better dual task interference abilities than females, though there were no significant differences in executive function between males and females. Executive function performance was the highest among the age group (18–24 years) population, but there were no significant differences between those in the higher age groups (25–34 years) and (35–40 years). [Conclusion] Overall, those participating in the study exhibited high prevalence of strong EF ability, regardless of sport activity type or level. This may suggest that type and level of sport activity may not be important when considering executive function performance maintenance for recreational athletes.

Changes in Moderate Intensity Physical Activity Are Associated With Better Cognition in the Multilevel Intervention for Physical Activity in Retirement Communities (MIPARC) Study

OBJECTIVE

The authors investigated if the physical activity increases observed in the Multilevel Intervention for Physical Activity in Retirement Communities (MIPARC) improved cognitive functions in older adults. The authors also examined if within-person changes in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), as opposed to low-light and high-light physical activity, were related to cognitive improvements in the entire sample.

METHODS

This was a cluster randomized control trial set in retirement communities in San Diego County, CA. A total of 307 older adults without a formal diagnosis of dementia (mean age: 83 years; age range: 67-100; standard deviation: 6.4 years; 72% women) were assigned to the physical activity (N = 151) or healthy education control (N = 156) groups. Interventions were led by study staff for the first 6 months and sustained by peer leaders for the next 6 months. Components included individual counseling and self-monitoring with pedometers, group education sessions, and printed materials. Measurements occurred at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months. Triaxial accelerometers measured physical activity for 1 week. The Trail Making Test (TMT) Parts A and B and a Symbol Search Test measured cognitive functions.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences in cognitive functions between the MIPARC intervention and control groups at 6 or 12 months. Within-person increases in MVPA, and not low-light or high-light physical activity, were associated with improvements in TMT Parts B, B-A, and Symbol Search scores in the entire sample.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that MVPA may have a stronger impact on cognitive functions than lower intensity physical activity within retirement community samples of highly educated older adults without dementia.

Effects of Acute Exercise Duration on the Inhibition Aspect of Executive Function in Late Middle-Aged Adults

Objective: This study investigated whether acute exercise duration affects inhibition in late middle-aged adults. Methods: Over four separate days, 40 late middle-aged adults completed, in a counterbalanced order, three exercise sessions consisting of single bouts of moderate-to-vigorous intensity cycling, with the main acute exercise durations being 10, 20, and 45 min, and a control session consisting of 30 min of reading. Their inhibition performance was then evaluated by administration of the Stroop test following each session. Results: The participants had shorter mean response times for both the congruent and neutral conditions of the Stroop following the acute exercise lasting 20 min than they did after the control session. The acute exercise lasting 20 min also resulted in shorter response times for both conditions of the Stroop than the acute exercise lasting only 10 min. Meanwhile, the acute exercise lasting 45 min resulted in a shorter mean response time for the neutral Stroop condition than did the control session. Finally, the acute exercise lasting 20 min resulted in the shortest mean response time of all four sessions for the Stroop incongruent condition. Conclusion: The above findings suggest that the moderate-to-vigorous intensity acute exercise lasting 20 min facilitated multiple cognitive function domains in general, whereas the exercise sessions of shorter and longer duration had negligible effects on executive function in the late middle-aged adults. These results highlight the need to consider the duration of any moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise when developing acute exercise programs to facilitate executive function in aged populations.

Exercise and Retrieval-Induced Forgetting

Retrieving a subset of items from memory can cause forgetting of other related items in memory, referred to as retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF). This type of forgetting (RIF) is thought to be related to working memory and executive control processes, of which are known to be influenced by acute exercise. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether acute exercise could accentuate RIF. A two-arm, parallel-group randomized controlled intervention was employed. Participants (N = 40) were randomized into one of two groups, including an experimental group (15-min of moderate-intensity exercise) and a control group (time-matched seated task). Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) and retrieval practice (RP) were assessed from a category-exemplar memory task. There was no significant main effect for RIF and no group by RIF interaction, suggesting that acute exercise did not alter RIF more than the control group. There was a significant main effect for RP, but there was no group by RP interaction. These RP findings align with the RIF findings, indicating that acute exercise did not alter RP more so than the control group. In conclusion, our experimental results do not provide support for an association of acute exercise on retrieval-induced forgetting or retrieval practice.

Experimental Effects of Acute Exercise in Attenuating Memory Interference: Considerations by Biological Sex

Background and Objectives: The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of acute exercise on memory interference and determine if this potential relationship is moderated by sex. Materials and Methods: A randomized controlled experiment was conducted (N = 40), involving young adult males (n = 20) and females (n = 20) completing two counterbalanced visits (exercise and no exercise). The exercise visit involved an acute (15 min), moderate-intensity bout of treadmill exercise, while the control visit involved a time-matched seated task. Memory interference, including both proactive interference and retroactive interference, involved the completion of a multi-trial memory task. Results: In a factorial ANOVA with the outcome being List B, there was a main effect for condition (F(1,38) = 5.75, P = 0.02, n²_p = 0.13), but there was no main effect for sex (F(1,38) = 1.39, P = 0.24, n²_p = 0.04) or sex by condition interaction (F(1,38) = 1.44, P = 0.23, n²_p = 0.04). Conclusion: In conclusion, acute moderate-intensity exercise was effective in attenuating a proactive memory interference effect. This effect was not moderated by biological sex.

Traumatic Brain Injury Modifies the Relationship Between Physical Activity and Global and Cognitive Health: Results From the Barcelona Brain Health Initiative

Physical activity has many health benefits for individuals with and without history of brain injury. Here, we evaluated in a large cohort study the impact of physical activity on global and cognitive health as measured by the PROMIS global health and NeuroQoL cognitive function questionnaires. A nested case control study assessed the influence of a history of traumatic brain injury (TBI) on the effects of physical activity since underlying pathophysiology and barriers to physical activity in individuals with TBI may mean the effects of physical activity on perceived health outcomes differ compared to the general population. Those with a history of TBI (n = 81) had significantly lower Global health (β = -1.66, p = 0.010) and NeuroQoL cognitive function (β = -2.65, p = 0.006) compared to healthy adults (n = 405). A similar proportion of individuals in both groups reported being active compared to being insufficiently active (X ( 1 ) 2 = 0.519 p = 0.471). Furthermore, the effect of physical activity on global health (β = 0.061, p = 0.076) and particularly for NeuroQoL (β = 0.159, p = 0.002) was greater in those with a history of TBI. Individuals with a history of TBI can adhere to a physically active lifestyle, and if so, that is associated with higher global and cognitive health perceptions. Adhering to a physically active lifestyle is non-trivial, particularly for individuals with TBI, and therefore adapted strategies to increase participation in physical activity is critical for the promotion of public health.