Aorto-Iliac Artery Calcification Prior to Kidney Transplantation

Carotid calcium burden derived from computed tomography angiography as a predictor of all-cause mortality after carotid endarterectomy

OBJECTIVE

Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) aims to reduce the risk of stroke in patients with atherosclerotic carotid disease. Preoperative risk assessments that predict complications are needed to optimize the care in this patient group. The current approach, namely relying solely on symptomatology and degree of stenosis, is outdated and calls for innovation. The Agatston calcium score was applied in several vascular specialties to assess cardiovascular risk profile but has been little studied in carotid surgery. It is hypothesized that a higher calcium burden at initial presentation equates to a worse prognosis attributable to an increased cerebrovascular and cardiovascular risk profile. The aim was to investigate the association between preoperative ipsilateral calcium score and postoperative all-cause mortality in patients undergoing CEA.

METHODS

This single-center retrospective cohort study included 89 patients who underwent CEA at a tertiary referral center between 2010 and 2018. Preoperative calcium scores were measured on contrast-enhanced computed tomography images with patient-specific Hounsfield thresholds at the level of the carotid bifurcation. The association between these calcium scores and all-cause mortality was analyzed using multivariable adjusted Cox proportional hazard analysis.

RESULTS

Cox proportional hazard analysis demonstrated a significant association between preoperative ipsilateral carotid calcium score and all-cause mortality (hazard ratio, 1.10; 95% confidence interval, 1.03-1.16; P = .003). After adjusting for age, preoperative estimated glomerular filtration rate, and diabetes mellitus, a significant association remained (hazard ratio, 1.07; 95% confidence interval, 1.00-1.15; P = .05).

CONCLUSIONS

A higher calcium burden was predictive of worse outcome, which might be explained by an overall poorer health status. These results highlight the potential of calcium measurements in combination with other traditional risk factors, for preoperative risk assessment and thus for improved patient education and care.

Association between sclerostin levels and vascular outcomes in kidney transplantation patients

BACKGROUND

The impact of circulating sclerostin levels on vascular calcification has shown conflicting results depending on the target population and vascular anatomy. This study investigated the associations of sclerostin levels with vascular outcomes in kidney transplant patients.

METHODS

In a prospective observational study of the Korean Cohort Study for Outcome in Patients with Kidney Transplantation, 591 patients with serum sclerostin level data prior to transplantation were analyzed. The main predictor was the pre-transplant sclerostin level. Vascular outcomes were the abdominal aortic calcification score and brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity measured at pre-transplant screening and three and five years after kidney transplantation.

RESULTS

In linear regression analysis, sclerostin level positively correlated with changes in abdominal aortic calcification score between baseline and five years after kidney transplantation (coefficient of 0.73 [95% CI, 0.11-1.35] and 0.74 [95% CI, 0.06-1.42] for second and third tertiles, respectively, vs the first tertile). In a longitudinal analysis over five years, using generalized estimating equations, the coefficient of the interaction (sclerostin × time) was significant with a positive value, indicating that higher sclerostin levels were associated with faster increase in post-transplant abdominal aortic calcification score. Linear regression analysis revealed a positive association between pre-transplant sclerostin levels and changes in brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (coefficient of 126.7 [95% CI, 35.6-217.8], third vs first tertile). Moreover, a significant interaction was identified between sclerostin levels and brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity at five years.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated pre-transplant sclerostin levels are associated with the progression of post-transplant aortic calcifications and arterial stiffness.

Validation of a Length-Adjusted Abdominal Arterial Calcium Score Method for Contrast-Enhanced CT Scans

BACKGROUND

The Agatston score on noncontrast computed tomography (CT) scans is the gold standard for calcium load determination. However, contrast-enhanced CT is commonly used for patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVDs), such as peripheral arterial occlusive disease (PAOD) and abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). Currently, there is no validated method to determine calcium load in the aorta and peripheral arteries with a contrast-enhanced CT. This study validated a length-adjusted calcium score (LACS) method for contrast-enhanced CT scans.

METHOD

The LACS (calcium volume in mm³/arterial length in cm) in the abdominal aorta was calculated using four-phase liver CT scans of 30 patients treated between 2017 and 2021 at the University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG) with no aortic disease. Noncontrast CT scans were segmented with a 130 Hounsfield units (HU) threshold, and a patient-specific threshold was used for contrast-enhanced CTs. The LACS was calculated and compared from both segmentations. Secondly, the interobserver variability and the influence of slice thickness (0.75 mm vs. 2.0 mm) was determined.

RESULTS

There was a high correlation between the LACS from contrast-enhanced CT scans and the LACS of noncontrast CTs (R² = 0.98). A correction factor of 1.9 was established to convert the LACS derived from contrast-enhanced CT to noncontrast CT scans. LACS interobserver agreement on contrast-enhanced CT was excellent (1.0, 95% confidence interval = 1.0-1.0). The 0.75 mm CT threshold was 541 (459-625) HU compared with 500 (419-568) HU on 2 mm CTs (p = 0.15). LACS calculated with both thresholds was not significantly different (p = 0.63).

CONCLUSION

The LACS seems to be a robust method for scoring calcium load on contrast-enhanced CT scans in arterial segments with various lengths.

Ipsilateral Aorto-Iliac Calcification is Not Directly Associated With eGFR After Kidney Transplantation: A Prospective Cohort Study Analyzed Using a Linear Mixed Model

Aorto-iliac calcification (AIC) is a well-studied risk factor for post-transplant cardiovascular events and mortality. Its effect on graft function remains unknown. The primary aim of this prospective cohort study was to assess the association between AIC and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in the first year post-transplant. Eligibility criteria were: ≥50 years of age or ≥30 years with at least one risk factor for vascular disease. A non-contrast-enhanced CT-scan was performed with quantification of AIC using the modified Agatston score. The association between AIC and eGFR was investigated with a linear mixed model adjusted for predefined variables. One-hundred-and-forty patients were included with a median of 31 (interquartile range 26-39) eGFR measurements per patient. No direct association between AIC and eGFR was found. We observed a significant interaction between follow-up time and ipsilateral AIC, indicating that patients with higher AIC scores had lower eGFR trajectory over time starting 100 days after transplant (p = 0.014). To conclude, severe AIC is not directly associated with lower post-transplant eGFR. The significant interaction indicates that patients with more severe AIC have a lower eGFR trajectory after 100 days in the first year post-transplant.

Atherosclerosis and Intrarenal Resistance Index in Kidney Transplant Recipients

Atherosclerosis of the aortoiliac vessels can adversely affect kidney perfusion after kidney transplantation. Atherosclerosis severity can be determined using the calcium score (CaScore). Potential problems with posttransplantation kidney perfusion can be determined using the intrarenal resistance index (RI). This study investigated the association between aortoiliac CaScore and RI in kidney transplant recipients.

Methods

Kidney transplant recipients (2004-2019), for whom the CaScore and RI were determined, were included in this dual-center cohort study. CaScore was measured in 3 aortoiliac segments using noncontrast CT imaging. RI was determined using Doppler ultrasound. Multivariable linear regression analyses were performed between the CaScore and RI, adjusted for confounding variables.

Results

The mean age of the 389 included patients was 59 (±13) y. The mean RI (unitless) was 0.71 (±0.09)' and the median CaScore (unitless) was 3340 (399-7833). In univariable linear regression analyses with RI as the dependent variable, CaScore (β = 0.011; P < 0.001) was positively associated with RI. Moreover, recipient age (β = 0.014; P < 0.001), history of diabetes (β = 0.029; P = 0.003), recipient history of vascular interventions (β = 0.032; P = 0.002), prior dialysis (β = 0.029; P = 0.003), deceased donor transplantation (β = 0.042; P < 0.001), donation after cardiac death (β = 0.036; P = 0.001), an increase in cold ischemia time (β = 0.011; P < 0.001), and the Comprehensive Complication Index (β = 0.006; P = 0.002) were also positively associated with RI, whereas preoperative recipient diastolic blood pressure (β = -0.007; P = 0.030) was inversely associated. In multivariable analyses, CaScore and RI remained significantly (P = 0.010) associated, independent of adjustment for potential confounders. Furthermore, in univariable linear regression analyses, multiple graft function characteristics were associated with RI.

Conclusions

A significant association was found between CaScore and RI, independent of adjustment for multiple potential confounding factors, leading to a better insight into the development and interpretation of RI. Aortoiliac atherosclerosis should be considered when interpreting the RI and determining the possible cause of malperfusion and graft failure after kidney transplantation.

A CT-based pelvic calcification score in kidney transplant patients is a possible predictor of graft and overall survival

OBJECTIVES

Computerized tomography (CT) is the most accurate method for evaluating pelvic calcifications, which are of utmost importance for planning kidney transplantation (KT). The aim of our study was to evaluate the incidence and distribution of iliac artery calcifications and correlate the novel pelvic calcification score (PCS) with cardiovascular risk factors and graft and overall survival in KT patients.

METHODS

We retrospectively included 118 KT patients operated at our institution with pretransplant pelvic CT. Calcification morphology, circumference and length of both common and external iliac arteries were independently scored by two uroradiologists. PCS was calculated as the total score sum of all three calcification features in all vessels. PCS correlation with graft and patient survival was performed.

RESULTS

Calcification in at least one vascular segment was found in 79% of patients. PCS was significantly higher in male patients (p = 0.006), patients over 55 years (p < 0.001), and patients on haemodialysis (p = 0.016). Patients with a PCS >3 had significantly shorter graft and overall survival rates (p = 0.041 and p = 0.039, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The extent of iliac artery calcification in KT recipients quantified by PCS on pretransplant CT correlates with graft and overall patient survival. A PCS over three was associated with worse clinical outcomes and could become a possible prognostic factor.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE

Our novel PCS is a robust method for quantifying iliac artery calcification burden. Since higher a PCS correlates with worse patient and graft survival, PCS has the potential to become a prognostic factor in kidney transplant patients.

Association of Abdominal Arterial Calcification Score with Patients' Survival and Kidney Allograft Function after Kidney Transplant

BACKGROUND

Abdominal arterial calcification (AAC) is common among candidates for kidney transplant. The aim of this study is to correlate AAC score value with post-kidney transplant outcomes.

METHODS

We modified the coronary calcium score by changing the intake data points and used it to quantitate the AAC. We conducted a retrospective clinical study of all adult patients who were transplanted at our center, between 2010 and 2013, and had abdominal computed tomography scan done before transplantation. Outcomes included mortality, pulse pressure (PP) measured by 24 h ambulatory blood pressure monitoring system, and kidney allograft function measured by iothalamate clearance.

RESULTS

For each 1000 increase of AAC score value, there is an associated 1.05 increase in the risk of death (95% CI 1.02, 1.08) (p < 0.001). Overall median AAC value for all patients was 1784; Kaplan-Meier curve showed reduced survival of all-cause mortality for patients with AAC score value above median and reduced survival among patients with cardiac related mortality. The iothalamate clearance was lower among patients with total AAC score value above the median. Patients with abnormal PP (< 40 or > 60 mmHg) had an elevated median AAC score value at 4319.3 (IQR 1210.4, 11097.1) compared to patients with normal PP with AAC score value at 595.9 (IQR 9.9, 2959.9) (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

We showed an association of AAC with patients' survival and kidney allograft function after kidney transplant. The AAC score value could be used as a risk stratification when patients are considered for kidney transplant.

Risk of post-transplant cardiovascular events in kidney transplant recipients with preexisting aortoiliac stenosis

Prediction of the risk of cardiovascular events (CVE's) is important to optimize outcomes after kidney transplantation. Aortoiliac stenosis is frequently observed during pre‐transplant screening. We hypothesized that these patients are at higher risk of post‐transplant CVE's due to the joint underlying atherosclerotic disease. Therefore, we aimed to assess whether aortoiliac stenosis was associated with post‐transplant CVE's. This retrospective, single‐center cohort study included adult kidney transplant recipients, transplanted between 2000 and 2016, with contrast‐enhanced imaging available. Aortoiliac stenosis was classified according to the Trans‐Atlantic Inter‐Society Consensus (TASC) II classification and was defined as significant in case of ≥50% lumen narrowing. The primary outcome was CVE‐free survival. Eighty‐nine of 367 patients had significant aortoiliac stenosis and were found to have worse CVE‐free survival (median CVE‐free survival: stenosis 4.5 years (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.8–6.2), controls 8.9 years (95% CI 6.8–11.0); log‐rank test P < .001). TASC II C and D lesions were independent risk factors for a post‐transplant CVE with a hazard ratio of 2.15 (95% CI 1.05–4.38) and 6.56 (95% CI 2.74–15.70), respectively. Thus, kidney transplant recipients with TASC II C and D aortoiliac stenosis require extensive cardiovascular risk management pre‐, peri,‐ and post‐transplantation.

Selective screening imaging of the aortoiliac arterial system in kidney transplant candidates with non-contrast pelvic computed tomography

Non-contrast pelvic computed tomography (CT) can detect severe iliac artery calcifications that present technical contraindications to kidney transplantation (TCT). We screened 454 asymptomatic patients with a history of any of the following: hemodialysis >10 years, diabetes mellitus >20 years, coronary artery disease (CAD) with percutaneous or surgical interventions, carotid disease, diabetes with below-/above-knee amputations, and heart-kidney transplantation candidacy. Patients with normal dorsalis pedis and/or tibialis posterior pulses were not screened. A total of 8.4% had severe calcifications with TCT; CT determined laterality for implantation in 13.9%. No patients with the following characteristics were classified as TCT: age <40 years, hemodialysis >10 years, carotid arterial disease, prior lower extremity amputation, or heart-kidney transplantation candidacy. CAD was associated with TCT in univariate though not multivariate analysis. Limiting screening to patients >40 years, with DM >20 years, or with CAD, 9.8% had a TCT and CT determined transplant laterality in 14.2%. Screening for severe iliac artery calcifications is useful for selected kidney transplantation candidates over age 40. It can assist with laterality choice or surgeon determination of TCT. Cost and radiation exposure risks should be weighed against the morbidity risks from unnecessary surgery.

Working towards an ERAS Protocol for Pancreatic Transplantation: A Narrative Review

Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) initially started in the early 2000s as a series of protocols to improve the perioperative care of surgical patients. They aimed to increase patient satisfaction while reducing postoperative complications and postoperative length of stay. Despite these protocols being widely adopted in many fields of surgery, they are yet to be adopted in pancreatic transplantation: a high-risk surgery with often prolonged length of postoperative stay and high rate of complications. We have analysed the literature in pancreatic and transplantation surgery to identify the necessary preoperative, intra-operative and postoperative components of an ERAS pathway in pancreas transplantation.

Aorto-Iliac Artery Calcification and Graft Outcomes in Kidney Transplant Recipients

While the association of vascular calcification with inferior patient outcomes in kidney transplant recipients is well-established, the association with graft outcomes has received less attention. With this dual-centre cohort study, we aimed to determine the clinical impact of recipient pre-transplant aorto-iliac calcification, measured on non-contrast enhanced computed tomography (CT)-imaging within three years prior to transplantation (2005–2018). We included 547 patients (61.4% male, age 60 (interquartile range 51–68) years), with a median follow-up of 3.1 (1.4–5.2) years after transplantation. The aorto-iliac calcification score (CaScore) was inversely associated with one-year estimated-glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in univariate linear regression analysis (standard β −3.3 (95% CI −5.1 to −1.5, p < 0.0001), but not after adjustment for potential confounders, including donor and recipient age (p = 0.077). In multivariable Cox regression analyses, a high CaScore was associated with overall graft failure (p = 0.004) and death with a functioning graft (p = 0.002), but not with death-censored graft failure and graft function decline. This study demonstrated that pre-transplant aorto-iliac calcification is associated with one-year eGFR in univariate, but not in multivariable linear regression analyses. Moreover, this study underlines that transplantation in patients with a high CaScore does not result in earlier transplant function decline or worse death censored graft survival, although ongoing efforts for the prevention of death with a functioning graft remain essential.

Kidney Transplantation and Diagnostic Imaging: The Early Days and Future Advancements of Transplant Surgery

The first steps for modern organ transplantation were taken by Emerich Ullmann (Vienne, Austria) in 1902, with a dog-to-dog kidney transplant, and ultimate success was achieved by Joseph Murray in 1954, with the Boston twin brothers. In the same time period, the ground-breaking work of Wilhelm C. Röntgen (1895) and Maria Sklodowska-Curie (1903), on X-rays and radioactivity, enabled the introduction of diagnostic imaging. In the years thereafter, kidney transplantation and diagnostic imaging followed a synergistic path for their development, with key discoveries in transplant rejection pathways, immunosuppressive therapies, and the integration of diagnostic imaging in transplant programs. The first image of a transplanted kidney, a urogram with intravenous contrast, was shown to the public in 1956, and the first recommendations for transplantation diagnostic imaging were published in 1958. Transplant surgeons were eager to use innovative diagnostic modalities, with renal scintigraphy in the 1960s, as well as ultrasound and computed tomography in the 1970s. The use of innovative diagnostic modalities has had a great impact on the reduction of post-operative complications in kidney transplantation, making it one of the key factors for successful transplantation. For the new generation of transplant surgeons, the historical alignment between transplant surgery and diagnostic imaging can be a motivator for future innovations.

Tumor infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) as a biomarker for prognosis benefits in patients with osteosarcoma

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma is a rare malignant bone tumor in adolescents and children. Poor prognosis has always been a difficult problem for patients with osteosarcoma. Recent studies have shown that tumor infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) are associated with the clinical outcome of osteosarcoma patients. The aim of our research was to construct a risk score model based on TIICs to predict the prognosis of patients with osteosarcoma.

METHODS

CIBERSORTX algorithm was used to calculate the proportion of 22 TIIC types in osteosarcoma samples. Kaplan-Meier curves were drawn to investigate the prognostic value of 22 TIIC types. Forward stepwise approach was used to screen a minimal set of immune cell types. Multivariate Cox PHR analysis was performed to construct an immune risk score model.

RESULTS

Osteosarcoma samples with CIBERSORTX output p value less than 0.05 were selected for research. Kaplan-Meier curves indicated that naive B cells (p = 0.047) and Monocytes (p = 0.03) in osteosarcoma are associated with poor prognosis. An immune risk score model was constructed base on eight immune cell types, and the ROC curve showed that the immune risk score model is reliable in predicting the prognosis of patients with osteosarcoma (AUC = 0.724). Besides, a nomogram model base on eight immune cell types was constructed to predict the survival rate of patients with osteosarcoma.

CONCLUSIONS

TIICs are closely related to the prognosis of osteosarcoma. The immune risk score model based on TIICs is reliable in predicting the prognosis of osteosarcoma.