Cytotoxic Effects of Plant Sap-Derived Extracellular Vesicles on Various Tumor Cell Types

Unveiling the potential: Extracellular vesicles from plant cell suspension cultures as a promising source

Extracellular vesicles are secreted by all eukaryotic cells and they have an important role in intercellular signaling. Plant extracellular vesicles (PEVs) are a novel area of research that has gained attention due to their potential implications in biomolecule transport and therapeutic applications. PEVs are lipid bilayer-enclosed structures that contain a diverse cargo of biomolecules such as proteins and lipids. Moreover, it is known that PEVs have a noticeable therapeutic potential for various conditions such as inflammation and oxidative stress. However, there are critical problems such as removing the endosomes and plant-derived biomolecules that decrease the standardization and therapeutic efficacy of PEVs. In our study, the aim was to characterize plant cell suspension-derived extracellular vesicles (PCSEVs) obtained from two different plant cell suspension cultures: Stevia rebaudiana and Vaccaria hispanica. These vesicles were isolated using ultrafiltration and characterized with nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The molecular composition of PCSEVs was profiled and the cellular uptake assay was performed. Our results demonstrated that PCSEVs have a spherical shape, less than 200 nm. In the fatty acid analysis, the primary components in PCSEVs were palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and cis-vaccenic acid. The protein content of Stevia rebaudiana-derived EVs (SDEVs) was largely associated with proteins involved in extracellular structures and functions. Conversely, Vaccaria hispanica-derived EVs (HDEVs) displayed a higher presence of cytosolic proteins. These findings contribute to the understanding of PCSEVs and open up potential avenues in extracellular vesicle research, pointing to promising prospects for future innovations in various fields.

Recognition on pharmacodynamic ingredients of natural products

Natural products (NPs) play an irreplaceable role in the intervention of various diseases and have been considered a critical source of drug development. Many new pharmacodynamic compounds with potential clinical applications have recently been derived from NPs. These compounds range from small molecules to polysaccharides, polypeptides, proteins, self-assembled nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles. This review summarizes various active substances found in NPs. The investigation of active substances in NPs can potentiate new drug development and promote the in-depth comprehension of the mechanism of action of NPs that can be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Research status and challenges of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been an increasing number of related studies on exosomes. Most studies have focused on exosomes derived from mammals, confirming the important role that exosomes play in cell communication. Plants, as a natural ingredient, plant-derived exosomes have been confirmed to have similar structures and functions to mammalian-derived exosomes. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are lipid bilayer membrane nanovesicles containing bioactive constituents such as miRNA, mRNA, protein, and lipids obtained from plant cells, that can participate in intercellular communication and mediate transboundary communication, have high bioavailability and low immunogenicity, are relatively safe, and have been shown to play an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis and preventing, and treating a variety of diseases. In this review, we describe the biogenesis, isolation and purification methods, structural composition, stability, safety, function of PELNs and challenges. The functions of PELNs in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor and drug delivery are mainly described, and the status of research on exosome nanoparticles of Chinese herbal medicines is outlined. Overall, we summarized the importance of PELNs and the latest research results in this field and provided a theoretical basis for the future research and clinical application of PELNs.

Industrial-produced lemon nanovesicles ameliorate experimental colitis-associated damages in rats via the activation of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant responses and microbiota modification

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) have recently emerged as natural delivery systems of biofunctional compounds toward mammalian cells. Considering their already described composition, anti-inflammatory properties, stability, and low toxicity, PDNVs offer a promising path for developing new preventive strategies for several inflammatory diseases, among which the inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this study, we explore the protective effects of industrially produced lemon vesicles (iLNVs) in a rat model of IBD. Characterization of iLNVs reveals the presence of small particles less than 200 nm in size and a profile of bioactive compounds enriched in flavonoids and organic acids with known beneficial properties. In vitro studies on human macrophages confirm the safety and anti-inflammatory effects of iLNVs, as evidenced by the reduced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and increased levels of anti-inflammatory markers. As evidenced by in vivo experiments, pre-treatment with iLNVs significantly alleviates symptoms and histological features in 2,4 dinitrobenzensulfuric acid (DNBS)-induced colitis in rats. Molecular pathway analysis reveals modulation of NF-κB and Nrf2, indicating anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Finally, iLNVs affects gut microbiota composition, improving the consistent colitis-related alterations. Overall, we demonstrated the protective role of industrially produced lemon nanovesicles against colitis and emphasized their potential in managing IBD through multifaceted mechanisms.

Plant-Derived Vesicle-like Nanoparticles: The Next-Generation Drug Delivery Nanoplatforms

A wide variety of natural bioactive compounds derived from plants have demonstrated significant clinical relevance in the treatment of various diseases such as cancer, chronic disease, and inflammation. An increasing number of studies have surfaced that give credence to the potential of plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) as compelling candidates for a drug delivery system (DDS). PDVLNs are cost-effective production, non-toxicity and non-immunogenicity and fascinating bi-ocompatibility. In this review, we attempt to comprehensively review and consolidate the position of PDVLNs as next-generation drug delivery nanoplatforms. We aim to give a quick glance to readers of the current developments of PDVLNs, including their biogenesis, characteristic features, composition, administration routes, advantages, and application. Further, we discuss the advantages and limitations of PDVLNs. We expect that the role of PDVLNs in drug delivery will be significantly enhanced, thus positioning them as the next generation of therapeutic modalities in the foreseeable future.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) has become a public health concern in elderly men due to an ever-increasing number of estimated cases. Unfortunately, the available treatments are unsatisfactory because of a lack of a durable response, especially in advanced disease states. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer encircled nanoscale vesicles that carry numerous biomolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids), mediating the transfer of information. The past decade has witnessed a wide range of EV applications in both diagnostics and therapeutics. First, EV-based non-invasive liquid biopsies provide biomarkers in various clinical scenarios to guide treatment; EVs can facilitate the grading and staging of patients for appropriate treatment selection. Second, EVs play a pivotal role in pathophysiological processes via intercellular communication. Targeting key molecules involved in EV-mediated tumor progression (e.g., proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, immune escape, and drug resistance) is a potential approach for curbing PCa. Third, EVs are promising drug carriers. Naïve EVs from various sources and engineered EV-based drug delivery systems have paved the way for the development of new treatment modalities. This review discusses the recent advancements in the application of EV therapies and highlights EV-based functional materials as novel interventions for PCa.

Development of rice bran-derived nanoparticles with excellent anti-cancer activity and their application for peritoneal dissemination

BACKGROUND

Rice bran a by-product of the rice milling process is currently underutilized. Recent studies have shown that plant-derived nanoparticles (pdNPs) can be mass-produced at a low cost and exhibit biological and therapeutic activities. Rice bran contains various anti-cancer compounds, including γ-oryzanol and γ-tocotrienol, and rice bran-derived nanoparticles (rbNPs) can be employed as novel therapeutic agents for cancer treatment.

RESULTS

Koshihikari rice bran was suspended in water, and the suspension was centrifuged and filtered through a 0.45-µm-pore size syringe filter. The filtrate was ultracentrifuged, and the precipitates were suspended to obtain rbNPs. The rbNPs were negatively charged exosome-like nanoparticles with an average diameter of approximately 130 nm. The rbNPs exhibited cytotoxic activities against cancer cells but not against normal cells. The cytotoxic activity of rbNPs to murine colon adenocarcinoma colon26 cells was significantly greater than DOXIL® or other pdNPs. The rbNPs induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and reduced the expression of proliferative proteins, including β-catenin and cyclin D1. Intraperitoneal injections of rbNPs into mice bearing peritoneal dissemination of colon26 cells significantly suppressed tumor growth with no significant adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that rbNPs are promising nanoparticles, hold significant potential for anti-cancer applications, and are expected to play a vital role in cancer treatment.

Bioactive compounds and biological functions of medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny lipid bilayer-enclosed membrane particles released from a variety of cell types into the surrounding environment. These EVs have massive participated in cell-to-cell communication and interspecies communication. In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) and "exosome-like" EVs populations found in distinct plants have attracted widespread attention. Especially, research on medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles (MPDEVs) are increasing, which are considered a kind of promising natural compound. This review summarizes current knowledge on MPDEVs in terms of bioactive compounds, including small RNA, protein, lipid, and metabolite, have been found on the surface and/or in the lumen of MPDEVs. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that MPDEVs exert broad biomedical functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, modulate microbiota, etc. MPDEVs may be a better substitute than animal-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) because of safety and biocompatibility in the future.

Prospects of plant-derived exosome-like nanocarriers in oncology and tissue engineering

Almost all cell types, either in vivo or in vitro, create extracellular vesicles (EVs). Among them are exosomes (EXOs), i.e., tiny nanovesicles containing a lipid bilayer, proteins, and RNAs that are actively involved in cellular communication, indicating that they may be exploited as both diagnostics and therapeutics for conditions like cancer. These nanoparticles can also be used as nanocarriers in many types of research to carry agents such as drugs. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PENs) are currently under investigation as a substitute for EXOs formed from mammalian cells, allowing researchers to get beyond the technical constraints of mammalian vesicles. Because of their physiological, chemical, and biological properties, PENs have a lot of promise for use as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems that can deliver various dosages, especially when it comes to large-scale repeatability. The present study has looked at the origins and isolation techniques of PENs, their anticancer properties, their usage as nanocarriers in the treatment of different illnesses, and their antioxidant properties. These nanoparticles can aid in the achievement of therapeutic objectives, as they have benign, non-immunogenic side effects and can pass biological barriers. Time-consuming and perhaps damaging PEN separation techniques is used. For the current PEN separation techniques to be used in commercial and therapeutic settings, they must be altered. In this regard, the concurrent application of biological sciences can be beneficial for improving PEN separation techniques. PENs' innate metabolic properties provide them a great deal of promise for application in drug delivery systems. However, there could be a risk to both the loaded medications and the intrinsic bioactive components if these particles are heavily armed with drugs. Therefore, to prevent these side effects, more studies are needed to devise sophisticated drug-loading procedures and to learn more about the physiology of PENs.

Plant-derived nanovesicles as an emerging platform for cancer therapy

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) derived from natural green products have emerged as an attractive nanoplatform in biomedical application. They are usually characterized by unique structural and biological functions, such as the bioactive lipids/proteins/nucleic acids as therapeutics and targeting groups, immune-modulation, and long-term circulation. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, materials, and synthetic chemistry, PDNVs can be engineered with multiple functions for efficient drug delivery and specific killing of diseased cells, which represent an innovative biomaterial with high biocompatibility for fighting against cancer. In this review, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art studies concerning the development of PDNVs for cancer therapy. The original sources, methods for obtaining PDNVs, composition and structure are introduced systematically. With an emphasis on the featured application, the inherent anticancer properties of PDNVs as well as the strategies in constructing multifunctional PDNVs-based nanomaterials will be discussed in detail. Finally, some scientific issues and technical challenges of PDNVs as promising options in improving anticancer therapy will be discussed, which are expected to promote the further development of PDNVs in clinical translation.

Proof-of-Concept Study on the Use of Tangerine-Derived Nanovesicles as siRNA Delivery Vehicles toward Colorectal Cancer Cell Line SW480

In the last years, the field of nanomedicine and drug delivery has grown exponentially, providing new platforms to carry therapeutic agents into the target sites. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are ready-to-use, biocompatible, and non-toxic nanoparticles that are revolutionizing the field of drug delivery. EVs are involved in cell-cell communication and mediate many physiological and pathological processes by transferring their bioactive cargo to target cells. Recently, nanovesicles from plants (PDNVs) are raising the interest of the scientific community due to their high yield and biocompatibility. This study aims to evaluate whether PDNVs may be used as drug delivery systems. We isolated and characterized nanovesicles from tangerine juice (TNVs) that were comparable to mammalian EVs in size and morphology. TNVs carry the traditional EV marker HSP70 and, as demonstrated by metabolomic analysis, contain flavonoids, organic acids, and limonoids. TNVs were loaded with DDHD1-siRNA through electroporation, obtaining a loading efficiency of 13%. We found that the DDHD1-siRNA complex TNVs were able to deliver DDHD1-siRNA to human colorectal cancer cells, inhibiting the target expression by about 60%. This study represents a proof of concept for the use of PDNVs as vehicles of RNA interference (RNAi) toward mammalian cells.

Progress and challenges of plant-derived nucleic acids as therapeutics in macrophage-mediated RNA therapy

Plant-derived nucleic acids, especially small RNAs have been proved by increasing evidence in the pharmacological activities and disease treatment values in macrophage meditated anti-tumor performance, immune regulating functions and antiviral activities. But the uptake, application and delivery strategies of RNAs as biodrugs are different from the small molecules and recombinant protein drugs. This article summarizes the reported evidence for cross-kingdom regulation by plant derived functional mRNAs and miRNAs. Based on that, their involvement and potentials in macrophage-mediated anti-tumor/inflammatory therapies are mainly discussed, as well as the load prospect of plant RNAs in viruses and natural exosome vehicles, and their delivery to mammalian cells through macrophage were also summarized. This review is to provide evidence and views for the plant derived RNAs as next generation of drugs with application potential in nucleic acid-based bio-therapy.

Ginger exosome-like nanoparticles (GELNs) induced apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and anti-metastatic effects in triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells

Ginger exosome-like nanoparticles (GELNs) have been extensively implicated in alleviating inflammation, maintaining intestinal microbiome and are considered competent drug delivery vehicles. Despite this, the current knowledge of the GELN interaction with cancer cells is limited. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), an aggressive variant lacking efficient therapeutics, necessitates novel natural counterparts with minimal side effects. This study investigates the action of GELNs isolated from ginger rhizomes against TNBC cells. GELNs were isolated by ultracentrifugation and characterized physicochemically. The interaction of GELNs with TNBC cells (MDA-MB-231) was studied in detail. The GELNs induced a concentration-dependent decrease in cell viability in MDA-MB-231 cells without affecting the normal cell lines tested. GELNs induced apoptosis as indicated by morphological changes, nuclear fragmentation, membrane damage, phosphatidyl serine translocation, ROS generation, drop in mitochondrial membrane potential, expression of apoptotic specific proteins, and increased caspase activity. GELNs also instigated cell cycle arrest, retarded cell migration and colony formation in TNBC cells. These findings report a novel action of GELNs against TNBC cells and a closer look at the underlying molecular mechanism of this interspecies communication. This opens newer prospects for using dietary ELNs to target therapeutically challenging cancers.

Plant-Derived Vesicles: A New Era for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment

Lipid-structured vesicles have been applied for drug delivery system for over 50 years. Based on their origin, lipid-structured vesicles are divided into two main categories, namely synthetic lipid vesicles (SLNVEs) and vesicles of mammalian origin (MDVEs). Although SLNVEs can stably transport anti-cancer drugs, their biocompatibility is poor and degradation of exogenous substances is a potential risk. Unlike SLNVEs, MDVEs have excellent biocompatibility but are limited by a lack of stability and a risk of contamination by dangerous pathogens from donor cells. Since the first discovery of plant-derived vesicles (PDVEs) in carrot cell supernatants in 1967, emerging evidence has shown that PDVEs integrate the advantages of both SLNVEs and MDVEs. Notably, 55 years of dedicated research has indicated that PDVEs are an ideal candidate vesicle for drug preparation, transport, and disease treatment. The current review systematically focuses on the role of PDVEs in cancer therapy and in particular compares the properties of PDVEs with those of conventional lipid vesicles, summarizes the preparation methods and quality control of PDVEs, and discusses the application of PDVEs in delivering anti-cancer drugs and their underlying molecular mechanisms for cancer therapy. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of PDVEs for the development of novel therapeutic strategies against cancer are discussed.

Perilla-Leaf-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Selectively Inhibit Breast Cancer Cell Proliferation and Invasion

Breast cancer is a common type of cancer characterized by high mortality rates. However, chemotherapy is not selective and often leads to side-effects. Therefore, there is a need for the development of highly efficient drugs. Recent studies have shown that some extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from cell cultures possess anti-cancer activity and hold great potential as cancer therapeutics. However, the use of mammalian cell cultures for EV production results in low productivity and high costs. To address this issue, extracellular vesicles derived from perilla leaves (Perex) were isolated and investigated for their anti-cancer activity in various cancer cells. Initially, a high concentration of Perex with a low level of impurities was successfully purified through a combination of ultrafiltration and size-exclusion chromatography. Perex exhibited potent anti-cancer activities, inhibiting the proliferation, migration, and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cancer cells, which have high levels of caveolin-1 compared to other cancer and normal cells. This selective attack on cancer cells with high levels of caveolin-1 reduces unwanted side-effects on normal cells. Considering its high productivity, low production cost, selective anti-cancer activity, and minimal side-effects, Perex represents a promising candidate for the therapeutic treatment of breast cancer.

Plant-Derived Vesicle-Like Nanoparticles: Clinical Application Exploration and Challenges

The utilization of plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) has shown effectiveness in the prevention/treatment of inflammatory-mediated diseases, malignancies, and immune-related diseases, such as acute liver injury, allergic asthma, gastric cancer and so on. This highlights the promising potential of PDVLNs as biotherapeutics. Furthermore, it should be noted that PDVLNs possess the ability to function as both natural and engineered drug carriers, making them an appealing option. This review aims to present the appropriate extraction methods of PDVLNs, summarize the applications of PDVLNs in different diseases, and provide an outlook on the prospects of PDVLNs. At the same time, the authors also express their discussion on the current limitations of PDVLNs.

Plant and mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic approach for the future

Background: In recent years, extracellular vesicles have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of active biomolecules (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) across the plant and animal kingdoms and have considerable roles in several physiological and pathological mechanisms, showing great promise as new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. Methods: In this study, we carefully reviewed the numerous articles published over the last few decades on the general knowledge of extracellular vesicles, their application in the therapy of various pathologies, and their prospects as an approach for the future. Results: The recent discovery and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of diverse origins and biogenesis have altered the current paradigm of intercellular communication, opening up new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Research into these EVs released by plant and mammalian cells has revealed their involvement in a number of physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as embryonic development, immune response, tissue regeneration, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vectors for drug delivery. Conclusion: Nanovesicles represent powerful tools for intercellular communication and the transfer of bioactive molecules. Their molecular composition and functions can vary according to their origin (plant and mammalian), so their formation, composition, and biological roles open the way to therapeutic applications in a variety of pathologies, which is arousing growing interest in the scientific community. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03608631.

Lemon-derived nanovesicles achieve antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects activating the AhR/Nrf2 signaling pathway

In the last years, extracellular vesicles (EVs) from different plant matrices have been isolated and gained the interest of the scientific community for their intriguing biological properties. In this study, we isolated and characterized nanovesicles from lemon juice (LNVs) and evaluated their antioxidant effects. We tested LNV antioxidant activity using human dermal fibroblasts that were pre-treated with LNVs for 24 h and then stimulated with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and UVB irradiation. We found that LNV pre-treatment reduced ROS levels in fibroblasts stimulated with H₂O₂ and UVB. This reduction was associated with the activation of the AhR/Nrf2 signaling pathway, whose protein expression and nuclear localization was increased in fibroblasts treated with LNVs. By using zebrafish embryos as in vivo model, we confirmed the antioxidant effects of LNVs. We found that LNVs reduced ROS levels and neutrophil migration in zebrafish embryos stimulated with LPS.

Plant-Derived Vesicle-Like Nanoparticles as Promising Biotherapeutic Tools: Present and Future

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous, phospholipid bilayer-enclosed biological particles that regulate cell communication by molecular cargo delivery and surface signaling. EVs are secreted by almost all living cells, including plant cells. Plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) is a generic term referring to vesicle-like nanostructure particles isolated from plants. Their low immunogenicity and wide availability make PDVLNs safer and more economical to be developed as therapeutic agents and drug carriers. Accumulating evidence indicates the key roles of PDVLNs in regulating interkingdom crosstalk between humans and plants. PDVLNs are capable of entering the human-body systemand delivering effector molecules to cells that modulate cell-signaling pathways. PDVLNs released by or obtained from plants thus have great influenceon human health and diseases. In this review, the biogenesis, detailed preparation methods, various physical and biochemical characteristics, biosafety, and preservation of PDVLNs are introduced, along with how these characteristics pertain to their biosafety and preservability. The potential applications of PDVLNs on different plant and mammalian diseases and PDVLN research standardization are then systematically discussed.

Extracellular Vesicle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Systematic Review

It is estimated that there are over 890,000 new cases of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) worldwide each year, accounting for approximately 5% of all cancer cases. Current treatment options for HNSCC often cause significant side effects and functional impairments, thus there is a challenge to discover more acceptable treatment technologies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) can be utilized for HNSCC treatment in several ways, for example, for drug delivery, immune modulation, as biomarkers for diagnostics, gene therapy, or tumor microenvironment modulation. This systematic review summarizes new knowledge regarding these options. Articles published up to 11 December 2022, were identified by searching the electronic databases PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane. Only full-text original research papers written in English were considered eligible for analysis. The quality of studies was assessed using the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) Risk of Bias Rating Tool for Human and Animal Studies, modified for the needs of this review. Of 436 identified records, 18 were eligible and included. It is important to note that the use of EVs as a treatment for HNSCC is still in the early stages of research, so we summarized information on challenges such as EV isolation, purification, and standardization of EV-based therapies in HNSCC.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in nanomedicine for human disease and therapeutic modalities

BACKGROUND

The past few years have witnessed a significant increase in research related to plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in biological and medical applications. Using biochemical technologies, multiple independent groups have demonstrated the important roles of PDEVs as potential mediators involved in cell-cell communication and the exchange of bio-information between species. Recently, several contents have been well identified in PDEVs, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other active substances. These cargoes carried by PDEVs could be transferred into recipient cells and remarkably influence their biological behaviors associated with human diseases, such as cancers and inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes the latest updates regarding PDEVs and focuses on its important role in nanomedicine applications, as well as the potential of PDEVs as drug delivery strategies to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents for the clinical management of diseases, especially like cancers.

CONCLUSION

Considering its unique advantages, especially high stability, intrinsic bioactivity and easy absorption, further elaboration on molecular mechanisms and biological factors driving the function of PDEVs will provide new horizons for the treatment of human disease.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: Recent advancements and current challenges on their use for biomedical applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a diverse class of lipid bilayer membrane vesicles released by both animal and plant cells. These ubiquitous vesicles are involved in intercellular communication and transport of various biological cargos, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. In recent years, interest in plant-derived EVs has increased tremendously, as they serve as a scalable and sustainable alternative to EVs derived from mammalian sources. In vitro and in vivo findings have demonstrated that these plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) possess intrinsic therapeutic activities that can potentially treat diseases and improve human health. In addition, PDVs can also act as efficient and biocompatible drug carriers. While preclinical studies have shown promising results, there are still several challenges and knowledge gaps that have to be addressed for the successful translation of PDVs into clinical applications, especially in view of the lack of standardised protocols for material handling and PDV isolation from various plant sources. This review provides the readers with a quick overview of the current understanding and research on PDVs, critically analysing the current challenges and highlighting the immense potential of PDVs as a novel class of therapeutics to treat human diseases. It is expected that this work will guide scientists to address the knowledge gaps currently associated with PDVs and promote new advances in plant-based therapeutic solutions.

Plant Nanovesicles for Essential Oil Delivery

Essential oils' therapeutic potential is highly recognized, with many applications rising due to reported anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, anti-aging, and anti-cancer effects. Nevertheless, clinical translation still remains a challenge, mainly due to essential oils' volatility and low water solubility and stability. The present review gathers relevant information and postulates on the potential application of plant nanovesicles to effectively deliver essential oils to target organs. Indeed, plant nanovesicles are emerging as alternatives to mammalian vesicles and synthetic carriers due to their safety, stability, non-toxicity, and low immunogenicity. Moreover, they can be produced on a large scale from various plant parts, enabling an easier, more rapid, and less costly industrial application that could add value to waste products and boost the circular economy. Importantly, the use of plant nanovesicles as delivery platforms could increase essential oils' bioavailability and improve chemical stability while reducing volatility and toxicity issues. Additionally, using targeting strategies, essential oils' selectivity, drug delivery, and efficacy could be improved, ultimately leading to dose reduction and patient compliance. Bearing this in mind, information on current pharmaceutical technologies available to enable distinct routes of administration of loaded vesicles is also discussed.

Organically derived exosomes as carriers of anticancer drugs and imaging agents for cancer treatment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), is the umbrella term used for different types of vesicles produced by the cells, among which exosomes form the largest group. Exosomes perform intercellular communication by carrying several biologics from donor or parental cells and delivering them to recipient cells. Their unique cargo-carrying capacity has recently been explored for use as delivery vehicles of anticancer drugs and imaging agents. Being naturally produced, exosomes have many advantages over synthetic lipid-based nanoparticles currently being used clinically to treat cancer and other diseases. The finding of the role of exosomes in human diseases has led to numerous preclinical and clinical studies exploring their use as an amenable drug delivery vehicle and a theranostic in cancer diagnosis and treatment. However, there are certain limitations associated with exosomes, with the most important being the selection of the biological source for producing highly biocompatible exosomes on a large scale. This review article explores the various sources from which therapeutically viable exosomes can be isolated for use as drug carriers for cancer treatment. The methods of exosome isolation and the process of loading them with cancer therapeutics and imaging agents are also discussed in the follow-up sections. Finally, the article concludes with future directions for exosome-based applications in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Bacterial extracellular vesicle applications in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer therapy is undergoing a paradigm shift toward immunotherapy focusing on various approaches to activate the host immune system. As research to identify appropriate immune cells and activate anti-tumor immunity continues to expand, scientists are looking at microbial sources given their inherent ability to elicit an immune response. Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are actively studied to control systemic humoral and cellular immune responses instead of using whole microorganisms or other types of extracellular vesicles (EVs). BEVs also provide the opportunity as versatile drug delivery carriers. Unlike mammalian EVs, BEVs have already made it to the clinic with the meningococcal vaccine (Bexsero®). However, there are still many unanswered questions in the use of BEVs, especially for chronic systemically administered immunotherapies. In this review, we address the opportunities and challenges in the use of BEVs for cancer immunotherapy and provide an outlook towards development of BEV products that can ultimately translate to the clinic.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: Current understanding and applications for cancer therapy

Plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) are membranous structures that originate from plant cells and are responsible for multiple physiological and pathological functions. In the last decade, PDVs have gained much attention for their involvement in different biological processes, including intercellular communication and defense response, and recent scientific evidence has opened a new avenue for their applications in cancer treatment. Nevertheless, much remains unknown about these vesicles, and current research remains inconsistent. This review aims to provide a comprehensive introduction to PDVs, from their biological characteristics to purification methods, and to summarize the status of their potential development for cancer therapy.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles as oral drug delivery carriers

Oral administration is one of the most convenient and widely utilized methods of drug administration. However, many drugs were difficult to be administered orally due to their poor oral bioavailability. Designing a safe and effective oral drug delivery system is one of the basic strategies to overcome the poor oral bioavailability. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) were found in a variety of plants and have similar physical and chemical properties to mammalian EVs. It has been proved that PDEVs can effectively encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, remain stable in harsh gastrointestinal environments, and cross biological barriers to reach target tissues. Furthermore, the biological activity of PDEVs enables it to play a synergistic therapeutic role with drugs. In addition, the safety and high yield of PDEVs indicate their potential as oral drug carriers. In this review, we introduce the biogenesis, isolation, characterization and drug delivery methods of PDEVs, describe their stability, transport, delivery and therapeutic applications. Finally, the potential and challenges of PDEVs as drug carriers are discussed.

Characterization of anti-proliferative and anti-oxidant effects of nano-sized vesicles from Brassica oleracea L. (Broccoli)

In this in vitro study, we test our hypothesis that Broccoli-derived vesicles (BDVs), combining the anti-oxidant properties of their components and the advantages of their structure, can influence the metabolic activity of different cancer cell lines. BDVs were isolated from homogenized fresh broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) using a sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation method and were characterized in terms of physical properties, such as particle size, morphology, and surface charge by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and laser doppler electrophoresis (LDE). Glucosinolates content was assessed by RPLC–ESI–MS analysis. Three different human cancer cell lines (colorectal adenocarcinoma Caco-2, lung adenocarcinoma NCI-H441 and neuroblastoma SHSY5Y) were evaluated for metabolic activity by the MTT assay, uptake by fluorescence and confocal microscopy, and anti-oxidant activity by a fluorimetric assay detecting intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Three bands were obtained with average size measured by TEM based size distribution analysis of 52 nm (Band 1), 70 nm (Band 2), and 82 nm (Band 3). Glucobrassicin, glucoraphanin and neoglucobrassicin were found mostly concentrated in Band 1. BDVs affected the metabolic activity of different cancer cell lines in a dose dependent manner compared with untreated cells. Overall, Band 2 and 3 were more toxic than Band 1 irrespective of the cell lines. BDVs were taken up by cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Pre-incubation of cells with BDVs resulted in a significant decrease in ROS production in Caco-2 and NCI-H441 stimulated with hydrogen peroxide and SHSY5Y treated with 6-hydroxydopamine, with all three Bands. Our findings open to the possibility to find a novel “green” approach for cancer treatment, focused on using vesicles from broccoli, although a more in-depth characterization of bioactive molecules is warranted.

Extracellular vesicles of cannabis with high CBD content induce anticancer signaling in human hepatocellular carcinoma

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been the topic of interest in recent years due to their proven therapeutic properties. Intact or manipulated plant EVs have shown antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancerous activities as a result of containing bioactive metabolites and other endogenous molecules. Less is known about the EV efficacy with high levels of bioactive secondary metabolites derived from medicinal or non-edible plants. Numerous data suggest the functionality of Cannabis sativa extract and its phytocannabinoids in cancer treatment. Here, two chemotypes of cannabis with different levels of D-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) were selected. EVs were isolated from each chemotype via differential ultracentrifugation. HPLC analysis was illustrative of the absence of THC in EVs derived from both plants. Therefore, two types of EVs were classified according to their CBD content into high- (H.C-EVs) and low-CBD EVs (L.C-EVs). Electron microscopy and DLS showed both cannabis-derived EVs (CDEVs) can be considered as exosome-like nanovesicles. Cytotoxicity assay showed that H.C-EVs strongly decreased the viability of two hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines, HepG2 and Huh-7, in a dose and time-dependent manner compared with L.C-EVs. H.C-EVs had no significant effect on HUVECs normal cell growth. The finding showed that the H.C-EVs arrested the G0/G1 phase in the cell cycle and significantly induced cell death by activating mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis signaling pathways in both HCC cell lines. Altogether, the current study highlights that CDEVs can be an ideal natural vehicle for bioactive phytocannabinoids and a promising strategy in cancer management.

Plant extracellular vesicles and their potential in human health research, the practical approach

Extracellular vesicles are small membrane particles (30-1000 nm) released by Bacteria, Eukaryotes and Archaea. They have been shown to play an important role in intracellular and intercellular communication, within and between kingdoms via transport of bioactive molecules. Thus, they can be involved in altering gene expression and regulation of physiological and pathological processes of the recipient. Their unique properties make extracellular vesicles a perfect candidate vector for targeted drug delivery or a biomarker. For a long time, animal and mainly mammal extracellular vesicles have been used in research. But for plants, there had been speculations about the existence of nanovesicles due to the presence of a cell wall. Today, awareness of plant extracellular vesicles is on the rise and their research has proved they have various functions, such as protein secretion, transport of bioactive molecules or defense against pathogens. Further potential of plant extracellular vesicles is stressed in this review.

Emergence of Edible Plant-Derived Nanovesicles as Functional Food Components and Nanocarriers for Therapeutics Delivery: Potentials in Human Health and Disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a highly heterogeneous population of membranous particles that are secreted by almost all types of cells across different domains of life, including plants. In recent years, studies on plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) showed that they could modulate metabolic reactions of the recipient cells, affecting (patho)physiology with health benefits in a trans-kingdom manner. In addition to its bioactivity, PDNV has advantages over conventional nanocarriers, making its application promising for therapeutics delivery. Here, we discuss the characteristics of PDNV and highlight up-to-date pre-clinical and clinical evidence, focusing on therapeutic application.

Anti‐inflammatory properties of lemon‐derived extracellular vesicles are achieved through the inhibition of ERK / NF‐κB signalling pathways

Chronic inflammation is associated with the occurrence of several diseases. However, the side effects of anti‐inflammatory drugs prompt the identification of new therapeutic strategies. Plant‐derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are gaining increasing interest in the scientific community for their biological properties. We isolated PDEVs from the juice of Citrus limon L. (LEVs) and characterized their flavonoid, limonoid and lipid contents through reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization quadrupole time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (RP‐HPLC–ESI‐Q‐TOF‐MS). To investigate whether LEVs have a protective role on the inflammatory process, murine and primary human macrophages were pre‐treated with LEVs for 24 h and then were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We found that pre‐treatment with LEVs decreased gene and protein expression of pro‐inflammatory cytokines, such as IL‐6, IL1‐β and TNF‐α, and reduced the nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of NF‐κB in LPS‐stimulated murine macrophages. The inhibition of NF‐κB activation was associated with the reduction in ERK1‐2 phosphorylation. Furthermore, the ability of LEVs to decrease pro‐inflammatory cytokines and increase anti‐inflammatory molecules was confirmed ex vivo in human primary T lymphocytes. In conclusion, we demonstrated that LEVs exert anti‐inflammatory effects both in vitro and ex vivo by inhibiting the ERK1‐2/NF‐κB signalling pathway.

Unconventional Secretion of Plant Extracellular Vesicles and Their Benefits to Human Health: A Mini Review

Mechanisms devoted to the secretion of proteins via extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been found in mammals, yeasts, and plants. Since they transport a number of leader-less proteins to the plasma membrane or the extracellular space, EVs are considered part of Unconventional protein secretion (UPS) routes. UPS involving EVs are a relatively new field in plants. Aside from their role in plant physiology and immunity, plant extracts containing EVs have also been shown to be beneficial for human health. Therefore, exploring the use of plant EVs in biomedicine and their potential as drug delivery tools is an exciting avenue. Here we give a summary of the state of knowledge on plant EVs, their crosstalk with mammalian systems and potential research routes that could lead to practical applications in therapeutic drug delivery.

Induction of apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells by nanovesicles from fingerroot (Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf.)

Colorectal cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, warranting the urgent need for a new treatment option. Plant-derived nanovesicles containing bioactive compounds represent new therapeutic avenues due to their unique characteristics as natural nanocarriers for bioactive molecules with therapeutic effects. Recent evidence has revealed potential anticancer activity of bioactive compounds from Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf. (fingerroot). However, the effect and the underlying mechanisms of fingerroot-derived nanovesicles (FDNVs) against colorectal cancer are still unknown. We isolated the nanovesicles from fingerroot and demonstrated their anticancer activity against two colorectal cancer cell lines, HT-29 and HCT116. The IC50 values were 63.9 ± 2.4, 57.8 ± 4.1, 47.8 ± 7.6 μg/ml for HT-29 cells and 57.7 ± 6.6, 47.2 ± 5.2, 34 ± 2.9 μg/ml for HCT116 cells at 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. Interestingly, FDNVs were not toxic to a normal colon epithelial cell line, CCD 841 CoN. FDNVs exhibited selective uptake by the colorectal cancer cell lines but not the normal colon epithelial cell line. Moreover, dose- and time-dependent FDNV-induced apoptosis was only observed in the colorectal cancer cell lines. In addition, reactive oxygen species levels were substantially increased in colorectal cancer cells, but total glutathione decreased after treatment with FDNVs. Our results show that FDNVs exhibited selective anticancer activity in colorectal cancer cell lines via the disruption of intracellular redox homeostasis and induction of apoptosis, suggesting the utility of FDNVs as a novel intervention for colorectal cancer patients.

Edible plant-derived nanotherapeutics and nanocarriers: recent progress and future directions

INTRODUCTION

High drug delivery efficiency, desirable therapeutic effects, and low toxicity have become crucial to develop nanotherapeutics. Natural nanoparticles (NPs) from edible plants contain a large quantity of bioactive small molecules, proteins, glycolipids, and microRNAs. The development of these NPs has rapidly attracted increasing attention due to their merits of green production, excellent biocompatibility, anti-inflammatory activities, and antitumor capacities.

AREAS COVERED

Here, we introduce the extraction, purification, and construction strategies of plant-derived exosome-like NPs (PDENs) and expound on their physicochemical properties, biomedical functions, and therapeutic effects against various diseases. We also recapitulate future directions and challenges of the emerging nanotherapeutics.

EXPERT OPINION

PDENs have been used as natural nanotherapeutics and nanocarriers. The challenges of applying PDENs primarily stem from the lack of understanding of the mechanisms that drive the tissue-specific targeting properties. Elucidating the underlying targeting mechanisms is one of the major focuses in this review, which helps to gain new research opportunities for the development of natural nanotherapeutics. Despite excellent biosafety and therapeutic effects in the treatment of various diseases, the medical translation of these NPs has still been limited by low yields and cold-chain dependence. Therefore, exploiting new techniques will be required for their massive production and storage.

Plant-RNA in Extracellular Vesicles: The Secret of Cross-Kingdom Communication

The release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a common language, used by living organisms from different kingdoms as a means of communication between them. Extracellular vesicles are lipoproteic particles that contain many biomolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The primary role of EVs is to convey information to the recipient cells, affecting their function. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) can be isolated from several plant species, and the study of their biological properties is becoming an essential starting point to study cross-kingdom communication, especially between plants and mammalians. Furthermore, the presence of microRNAs (miRNAs) in PDEVs represents an interesting aspect for understanding how PDEVs can target the mammalian genes involved in pathological conditions such as cancer, inflammation, and oxidative stress. In particular, this review focuses on the history of PDEVs, from their discovery, to purification from various matrices, and on the functional role of PDEV-RNAs in cross-kingdom interactions. It is worth noting that miRNAs packaged in PDEVs can be key modulators of human gene expression, representing potential therapeutic agents.

Stability of Plant Leaf-Derived Extracellular Vesicles According to Preservative and Storage Temperature

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are capable of efficiency delivering mRNAs, miRNAs, bioactive lipids, and proteins to mammalian cells. Plant-derived EVs critically contribute to the ability of plants to defend against pathogen attacks at the plant cell surface. They also represent a novel candidate natural substance that shows potential to be developed for food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products. However, although plant-derived EVs are acknowledged as having potential for various industrial applications, little is known about how their stability is affected by storage conditions. In this study, we evaluated the stability of Dendropanax morbifera leaf-derived extracellular vesicles (LEVs) alone or combined with the preservatives, 1,3-butylene glycol (to yield LEVs-1,3-BG) or TMO (LEVs-TMO). We stored these formulations at −20, 4, 25, and 45 °C for up to 4 weeks, and compared the stability of fresh and stored LEVs. We also assessed the effect of freeze-thawing cycles on the quantity and morphology of the LEVs. We found that different storage temperatures and number of freeze-thawing cycles altered the stability, size distribution, protein content, surface charge, and cellular uptake of LEVs compared to those of freshly isolated LEVs. LEVs-TMO showed higher stability when stored at 4 °C, compared to LEVs and LEVs-1,3-BG. Our study provides comprehensive information on how storage conditions affect LEVs and suggests that the potential industrial applications of plant-derived EVs may be broadened by the use of preservatives.

In Vivo Hypoglycemic Effects, Potential Mechanisms and LC-MS/MS Analysis of Dendropanax Trifidus Sap Extract

Extracts of medicinal plants have been widely used to benefit human health. Dendropanax morbiferus (DM) has been well-studied for its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects, while Dendropanax trifidus (DT) is a lesser-known ecotype phylogenetically similar to DM, which has received significantly less attention. Studies thus far have primarily focused on leaf and bark extracts of DM, and not much is yet known about the properties of either DM or DT sap. Therefore, here we performed in vivo toxicity and efficacy studies, in order to assess the biological effects of DT sap. To establish a safe dosage range, single dose or two-week daily administrations of various concentrations were performed for ICR mice. Measurements of survival ratio, body/organ weight, blood chemistry, histochemistry and Western blots were performed. A concentration of ≤0.5 mg/g DT sap was found to be safe for long-term administration. Interestingly, DT sap significantly reduced blood glucose in female mice. In addition, increasing concentrations of DT sap decreased phosphorylated (p) insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1(ser1101)/IRS-1 in liver tissues, while increasing pAMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/AMPK in both the liver and spleen. To analyze its components, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry of DT sap was performed in comparison with Acer saccharum (AS) sap. Components such as estradiol, trenbolone, farnesol, dienogest, 2-hydroxyestradiol and linoleic acid were found to be highly enriched in DT sap compared to AS sap. Our results indicate DT sap exhibits hypoglycemic effects, which may be due to the abundance of the bioactive components.

Development of nanoparticles derived from corn as mass producible bionanoparticles with anticancer activity

Recent studies showed that plant-derived nanoparticles (NPs) can be easily produced in high yields and have potential applications as therapeutic agents or delivery carriers for bioactive molecules. In this study, we selected corn as it is inexpensive to grow and mass-produced globally. Super sweet corn was homogenized in water to obtain corn juice, which was then centrifuged, filtered through a 0.45-μm-pore size syringe filter, and ultracentrifuged to obtain NPs derived from corn, or corn-derived NPs (cNPs). cNPs obtained were approximately 80 nm in diameter and negatively charged (- 17 mV). cNPs were taken up by various types of cells, including colon26 tumor cells and RAW264.7 macrophage-like cells, with selective reduction of the proliferation of colon26 cells. Moreover, cNPs induced tumor necrosis factor-α release from RAW264.7 cells. cNPs and RAW264.7 in combination significantly suppressed the proliferation of colon26/fluc cells. Daily intratumoral injections of cNPs significantly suppressed the growth of subcutaneous colon26 tumors in mice, with no significant body weight loss. These results indicate excellent anti-tumor activity of cNPs.

Extracellular Vesicles: Emerging Therapeutics in Cutaneous Lesions

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), as nanoscale membranous vesicles containing DNAs, RNAs, lipids and proteins, have emerged as promising diagnostic and therapeutic agents for skin diseases. Here, we summarize the basic physiology of the skin and the biological characteristic of EVs. Further, we describe the applications of EVs in the treatment of dermatological conditions such as skin infection, inflammatory skin diseases, skin repair and rejuvenation and skin cancer. In particular, plant-derived EVs and clinical trials are discussed. In addition, challenges and perspectives related to the preclinical and clinical applications of EVs are highlighted.

Antioxidative Effects of Carrot-Derived Nanovesicles in Cardiomyoblast and Neuroblastoma Cells

Oxidative stress is implicated in many diseases, including cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Because an increased level of oxidative stress causes apoptosis, it is necessary to inhibit cellular responses to oxidative stress. In this study, Carex, a nanovesicle from carrot, was isolated and investigated as a novel biomaterial with antioxidative function in cardiomyoblasts and neuroblastoma cells. A high concentration of nanovesicles was purified from carrots, using size-exclusion chromatography in combination with ultrafiltration. The characterization of Carex demonstrated that it had properties similar to those of extracellular vesicles. Carex showed low cytotoxicity in both H9C2 cardiomyoblasts and SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, when a high level of Carex was delivered to the cells. Carex was further investigated for its antioxidative and apoptotic effects, and it significantly inhibited ROS generation and apoptosis in vitro in myocardial infarction and Parkinson’s disease models. Carex inhibited the reduction of antioxidative molecule expression, including Nrf-2, HO-1, and NQO-1, in both models. Considering its antioxidative function and high production yield, Carex is a potential drug candidate for the treatment of myocardial infarction as well as Parkinson’s disease. Thus, the results demonstrated in this study will contribute to an exploration of a novel drug, using nanovesicles from plants, including carrots.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Current Findings, Challenges, and Future Applications

In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have gained the interest of many experts in fields such as microbiology and immunology, and research in this field has exponentially increased. These nano-sized particles have provided researchers with a number of interesting findings, making their application in human health and disease very promising. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that PDEVs can exhibit a multitude of effects, suggesting that these vesicles may have many potential future applications, including therapeutics and nano-delivery of compounds. While the preliminary results are promising, there are still some challenges to face, such as a lack of protocol standardization, as well as knowledge gaps that need to be filled. This review aims to discuss various aspects of PDEV knowledge, including their preliminary findings, challenges, and future uses, giving insight into the complexity of conducting research in this field.

Extracellular Vesicles from Plants: Current Knowledge and Open Questions

The scientific interest in the beneficial properties of natural substances has been recognized for decades, as well as the growing attention in extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by different organisms, in particular from animal cells. However, there is increasing interest in the isolation and biological and functional characterization of these lipoproteic structures in the plant kingdom. Similar to animal vesicles, these plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) exhibit a complex content of small RNAs, proteins, lipids, and other metabolites. This sophisticated composition enables PDEVs to be therapeutically attractive. In this review, we report and discuss current knowledge on PDEVs in terms of isolation, characterization of their content, biological properties, and potential use as drug delivery systems. In conclusion, we outline controversial issues on which the scientific community shall focus the attention shortly.

Membrane vesicles nanotheranostic systems: sources, engineering methods, and challenges

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell secretory native components with long-circulation, good biocompatibility, and physiologic barriers cross ability. EVs derived from different donor cells inherit varying characteristics and functions from their original cells and are favorable to serve as vectors for diagnosing and treating various diseases. However, EVs nanotheranostics are still in their infancy because of their limited accumulation at lesion sites and compromised therapy efficiency. Hence, engineering modification of EVs is usually needed to further enhance their stability, biological activity, and lesion-targeting capacity. Herein, we overview the characteristics of EVs from different sources, as well as the latest developments of surface engineering and cargo loading methods. We also focus especially on advances in EVs-based disease theranostics. At the end of the review, we predict the obstacles and prospects of the future clinical application of EVs.

Cyclic tangential flow filtration system for isolation of extracellular vesicles

Size-based filtration techniques have been developed for high-throughput isolation of extracellular vesicles (EVs). Conventional direct filtration systems have limitations in that large particles generally not only block the pores of the membrane but also damage the particles because of the high fluid pressure. Here, we propose a cyclic tangential flow filtration (TFF) system that includes two membranes with pore sizes of 200 and 30 nm, connected to a peristaltic pump that feeds the stream flowing to the membrane for continuous circulation. The cyclic TFF system is better able to isolate the specific 30–200 nm size range in one step through dual cyclic filtration compared with direct filtration (DF) and single cyclic TFF (scTFF). We further introduced a buffer-exchange process to the dcTFF system after filtration to remove contaminants for more efficient purification. As a result of comparative evaluation of dcTFF and ExoQuick, EVs isolated by dcTFF had more abundant exosome markers and active EVs. The cyclic TFF system not only has great potential to separate EVs with high selectivity and separation efficiency in small volumes of samples but can also be used in clinical applications, including medical diagnostic procedures.

Oilseed crop sunflower (Helianthus annuus) as a source of food: Nutritional and health benefits

The use of biofertilizers in developing environmentally friendly agriculture as an alternative to chemical-based fertilizers in enhancing food production is promising in sustainable agriculture for the improvement in the yield of some commercial crops such as sunflowers and other oilseed crops in terms of quality and quantity. Sunflower is an important oilseed crop native to South America and currently cultivated throughout the world. Generally, the sunflower is considered important based on its nutritional and medicinal value. Due to its beneficial health effects, sunflower has been recognized as functional foods or nutraceutical, although not yet fully harnessed. Sunflower contains mineral elements and phytochemicals such as dietary fiber, manganese, vitamins, tocopherols, phytosterols, triterpene glycosides, α-tocopherol, glutathione reductase, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, peptides, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins; and these compounds contribute to their functional and nutraceutical development. The extract from sunflower is known to be a potential source of antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and antioxidants agents that protect human cells against harmful reactive oxygen molecules and pathogenic microorganisms. Also, the pharmacological survey on sunflower had revealed its curative power to different kinds of diseases. The health benefits of sunflower include blood pressure and diabetic control, skin protection, and lowering cholesterol and other functions. This review is written with appropriate referencing to previously published work and provides updated information regarding the new method of organic farming for sunflower production, nutritional and health benefits, and its by-products as human diet and livestock feed. Also, the constraints of sunflower production are elucidated.

Anti-Metastatic Effects of Plant Sap-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in a 3D Microfluidic Cancer Metastasis Model

Natural medicinal plants have attracted considerable research attention for their potential as effective drugs. The roots, leaves and stems of the plant, Dendropanax morbifera, which is endemic to southern regions of Asia, have long been used as a folk medicine to treat variety of diseases. However, the sap of this plant has not been widely studied and its bioactive properties have yet to be clearly elucidated. Here, we isolated extracellular vesicles from D. morbifera sap with the goal of improving the intracellular delivery efficiency and clinical effectiveness of bioactive compounds in D. morbifera sap. We further investigated the anti-metastatic effects of D. morbifera sap-derived extracellular vesicles (DMS-EVs) using a cancer metastasis model based on 3D microfluidic system that closely mimics the in vivo tumor environment. We found that DMS-EVs exerted a concentration-dependent suppressive effect on cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), which are important mediators of cancer metastasis. DMS-EVs also altered expression level of genes, especially growth factor and extracellular matrix (ECM)-related genes, including integrin and collagen. Our findings suggest that DMS-EVs can act as anti-CAF agents to reduce CAFs in the tumor microenvironment. They further indicate the utility of our 3D microfluidic model for various drug-screening assays as a potential alternative to animal testing for use in validating therapeutic effects on cancer metastasis.