The Regulatory Hub of Siderophore Biosynthesis in the Phytopathogenic Fungus Alternaria alternata

Contribution of Autophagy to Cellular Iron Homeostasis and Stress Adaptation in Alternaria alternata

The tangerine pathotype of Alternaria alternata produces the Alternaria citri toxin (ACT), which elicits a host immune response characterized by the increase in harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. ROS detoxification in A. alternata relies on the degradation of peroxisomes through autophagy and iron acquisition using siderophores. In this study, we investigated the role of autophagy in regulating siderophore and iron homeostasis in A. alternata. Our results showed that autophagy positively influences siderophore production and iron uptake. The A. alternata strains deficient in autophagy-related genes 1 and 8 (ΔAaatg1 and ΔAaatg8) could not thrive without iron, and their adaptability to high-iron environments was also reduced. Furthermore, the ability of autophagy-deficient strains to withstand ROS was compromised. Notably, autophagy deficiency significantly reduced the production of dimerumic acid (DMA), a siderophore in A. alternata, which may contribute to ROS detoxification. Compared to the wild-type strain, ΔAaatg8 was defective in cellular iron balances. We also observed iron-induced autophagy and lipid peroxidation in A. alternata. To summarize, our study indicates that autophagy and maintaining iron homeostasis are interconnected and contribute to the stress resistance and the virulence of A. alternata. These results provide new insights into the complex interplay connecting autophagy, iron metabolism, and fungal pathogenesis in A. alternata.