Chilblain-Like Lesions during COVID-19 Pandemic: The State of the Art

Complications of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection in children

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Although during the initial stages of COVID-19 pandemic, the pediatric population seemed to be less affected, a number of SARS-CoV-2-related manifestations emerged over time, the principal of which is the multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). Here we provide an update on the main pediatric disorders associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

RECENT FINDINGS

MIS-C is novel postinfectious manifestation with clinical features similar to Kawasaki disease and characterized by intense systemic inflammation affecting multiple organs. Many children required intensive care therapy because of circulatory shock, usually of myocardial origin. Appropriate treatment with immunomodulatory therapies led to favorable outcomes in most patients, with recovery of overall health and cardiac dysfunction. In addition to MIS-C, a variety of other complications of COVID-19 in children have been described, including thrombotic events, neurologic manifestations, and chilblain-like lesions. There is still uncertainty about the true prevalence of long COVID in children and its distinction from pandemic-related complaints.

SUMMARY

The experience gained so far with MIS-C and the other SARS-CoV-2-related complications in children and adolescents will facilitate accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Further studies are needed to elucidate the pathophysiology of MIS-C and to determine the real impact of long-COVID in the pediatric age group.

COVID-19 und Hautmanifestationen: Übersicht der aktuellen Literatur im Rückblick auf die bisherige Pandemie

Hintergrund

Die durch das Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) ausgelöste anhaltende globale Pandemie manifestiert sich neben bekannten Organsystemen auch an der Haut. In der Literatur wurden verschiedene klinische Muster von Hauterscheinungen mit COVID-19 in Verbindung gebracht. Die Kenntnis der kutanen Manifestationen kann bei der Früherkennung, Risikostratifizierung von Patienten, Diagnose und den therapeutischen Strategien hilfreich sein. In dem vorliegenden Artikel wird der aktuelle Kenntnisstand zu dermatologischen Befunden im Zusammenhang mit COVID-19 unter Berücksichtigung der klinischen Präsentation, aktuellen pathophysiologischen Konzepten und Management zusammengefasst. Zukünftig sollen auch Erkenntnisse aus einem aktuell geführten Register der Universität Harvard gezogen werden können. Derzeit werden hier Hautveränderungen in Assoziation mit COVID-19 gesammelt (https://ilds.org/covid-19/international-dermatology-covid19-registry/).

Ziel der Arbeit

Ziel dieses Übersichtsartikels ist es, die aktuell verfügbare Literatur mit Hinweisen auf Hautveränderungen im Zusammenhang mit COVID-19 zu analysieren, zu strukturieren und die wichtigsten Aspekte zusammenzufassen.

Material und Methoden

Es wurde eine systematische Literaturrecherche in der medizin-wissenschaftlichen Datenbank PubMed und Medline für englischsprachige Originalartikel, Fallserien und -berichte sowie Übersichtsarbeiten unter Verwendung der Suchbegriffe „Covid“, „COVID-19“ oder „SARS-CoV-2“ in Kombination mit „skin“ oder „dermatol“ durchgeführt, welche bis Februar 2021 (Einträge bis zum 28.02.2021) veröffentlicht wurden. Untersucht wurde der Zusammenhang zwischen bestätigten oder vermuteten SARS-CoV-2-Infektionen in Assoziation mit Hautmanifestationen. Eingeschlossen wurden vorwiegend Arbeiten, welche ein möglichst großes Patientenkollektiv, das Erwachsenenalter und einen positiven Corona-Nachweis beinhalteten. Ziel der Arbeit ist es, einen Überblick der am häufigsten beobachteten Hautmanifestationen bei Infektionen mit SARS-CoV‑2 zu geben.

Ergebnisse und Diskussion

Die Zuordnung der Hautmanifestationen im Rahmen einer SARS-CoV-2-Infektion nach klinisch dermatologischen Mustern kann dazu beitragen, Patienten mit erhöhtem Risiko frühzeitig zu identifizieren und adäquat zu behandeln, um einem möglicherweise schwereren Krankheitsverlauf wie er beispielsweise bei der Livedo auftritt, entgegenzuwirken. Die erworbenen Kenntnisse der pathophysiologischen Mechanismen können zu einem verbesserten Management der Erkrankung und Hilfestellung möglicher Gegenmaßnahmen in der Bewältigung der Erkrankung beitragen.

New use of old medicine: Nifedipine acts on the TRP family and inflammatory proteins in the treatment of chilblain

As a calcium antagonist, the mechanism of nifedipine for treating chilblain has not been reported. In the present study, we established the chilblain model by using -20 ℃ 95% ethanol to freeze the right back foot of SD rats, and investigated the effects of this drug. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) examination indicated most of pannus in the skin tissue of chilblain rats had disappeared, and the local inflammatory cells were also greatly reduced when given nifedipine at 15.0 mg/kg/d. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) revealed that nifedipine inhibited release of inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β and VEGF in serum. The RT-PCR analysis showed that nifedipine down regulated mRNA levels of TRPC-6 and VEGF in skin tissue. Furthermore, immunohistochemical examination showed nifedipine inhibited expression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α inflammatory protein and further inhibited expression of TRP (transient receptor potential) family proteins TRPM-7, TRPC-1, TRPC-3 and TRPC-6 and reduced expression of VEGF in skin and relieved erythema and oedema. This study demonstrated that nifedipine as an old medicine can be new use for the treatment of chilblain by acting on TRPs family and inflammatory proteins.

Rare and common manifestations of COVID-19 in children

Introduction

It has been almost 2 years since the first reports on cutaneous manifestations of COVID-19. Those reported in children are different and include macular, papular, lichenoid, vesicular, urticarial, and vascular morphologies, among others. The prognosis of isolated cutaneous involvement in COVID-19 in children is usually self-limiting but the extreme variety of clinical presentations complicates the clinical approach.

Methods

Numerous reviews have been systematically drafted and edited giving the clinicians a future direction for skin presentations during pandemics.

Results and Discussion

Hereby we report the rare and common manifestations of COVID-19 in children and question the recurrence phenomena and age-related distribution of the eruptions.

Trichodynia and telogen effluvium in COVID-19 patients: Results of an international expert opinion survey on diagnosis and management

BACKGROUND

The cutaneous manifestations of COVID-19 may be useful disease markers and prognostic indicators. Recently, postinfectious telogen effluvium and trichodynia have also been reported.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the presence of trichodynia and telogen effluvium in patients with COVID-19 and describe their characteristics in relation to the other signs and symptoms of the disease.

METHODS

Patients with a history of COVID-19 presenting to the clinics of a group of hair experts because of telogen effluvium and/or scalp symptoms were questioned about their hair signs and symptoms in relation to the severity of COVID-19 and associated symptoms.

RESULTS

Data from 128 patients were collected. Telogen effluvium was observed in 66.3% of the patients and trichodynia in 58.4%. Trichodynia was associated with telogen effluvium in 42.4% of the cases and anosmia and ageusia in 66.1% and 44.1% of the cases, respectively. In majority (62.5%) of the patients, the hair signs and symptoms started within the first month after COVID-19 diagnosis, and in 47.8% of the patients, these started after 12 weeks or more.

LIMITATIONS

The recruitment of patients in specialized hair clinics, lack of a control group, and lack of recording of patient comorbidities.

CONCLUSION

The severity of postviral telogen effluvium observed in patients with a history of COVID-19 infection may be influenced by COVID-19 severity. We identified early-onset (<4 weeks) and late-onset (>12 weeks) telogen effluvium.

Molecular mechanisms of vasculopathy and coagulopathy in COVID-19

COVID-19 primarily affects the respiratory system and may lead to severe systemic complications, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), multiple organ failure, cytokine storm, and thromboembolic events. Depending on the immune status of the affected individual early disease control can be reached by a robust type-I-interferon (type-I-IFN) response restricting viral replication. If type-I-IFN upregulation is impaired, patients develop severe COVID-19 that involves profound alveolitis, endothelitis, complement activation, recruitment of immune cells, as well as immunothrombosis. In patients with proper initial disease control there can be a second flare of type-I-IFN release leading to post-COVID manifestation such as chilblain-like lesions that are characterized by thrombosis of small vessels in addition to an inflammatory infiltrate resembling lupus erythematosus (LE). Mechanistically, SARS-CoV-2 invades pneumocytes and endothelial cells by acting on angiotensin-II-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). It is hypothesized, that viral uptake might downregulate ACE2 bioavailability and enhance angiotensin-II-derived pro-inflammatory and pro-thrombotic state. Since ACE2 is encoded on the X chromosome these conditions might also be influenced by gender-specific regulation. Taken together, SARS-CoV-2 infection affects the vascular compartment leading to variable thrombogenic or inflammatory response depending on the individual immune response status.

Prognosis of rash and chilblain-like lesions among outpatients with COVID-19: a large cohort study

In a large regional observational cohort study of adult (≥ 18 years), outpatients with COVID-19, prevalence, characteristics, and outcome of patients with rash and/or chilblain-like lesions (CLL), compared with population without cutaneous features, were studied. In total, 28,957 outpatients were included; the prevalence of rash and CCL were 9.5% and 3.7%, respectively. Presence of rash was significantly associated with presence of asthenia, shivers or myalgia, respiratory and gastro-intestinal symptoms, and anosmia/ageusia. The presence of CCL was associated with chest pain, chest oppression, nausea/vomiting, and anosmia/ageusia. Patients with CCL were significantly less prone to an unfavourable outcome (hospitalization or death).