A Review of Biosensors for Detecting Tumor Markers in Breast Cancer

Cancer treatment approaches within the frame of hyperthermia, drug delivery systems, and biosensors: concepts and future potentials

This work presents a review of the therapeutic modalities and approaches for cancer treatment. A brief overview of the traditional treatment routes is presented in the introduction together with their reported side effects. A combination of the traditional approaches was reported to demonstrate an effective therapy until a few decades ago. With the improvement in the fabrication of nanomaterials, targeted therapy represents a novel therapeutic approach. This improvement established on nanoparticles is categorized into hyperthermia, drug delivery systems, and biosensors. Hyperthermia presents a personalized medicine-based approach in which targeted zones are heated up until the diseased tissue is destroyed by the thermal effect. The use of magnetic nanoparticles further improved the effectiveness of hyperthermia owing to the enhanced heating action, further increasing the accuracy of the targeting process. Nanoparticle-based biosensors present a smart nanodevice that can detect, monitor, and target tumor tissues by following the biomarkers in the body fluids. Magnetic nanoparticles offer a controlled thermo-responsive device that can be manipulated by changing the magnetic field, offering a more personalized and controlled hyperthermia therapeutic modality. Similarly, gold nanoparticles offer an effective aid in the hyperthermia treatment approach. Furthermore, carbon nanotubes and metal-organic frameworks present a cutting-edge approach to cancer treatment. A combination of functionalized nanoparticles offers a unique route for drug delivery systems, in which therapeutic agents carried by nanoparticles are guided into the human body and then released in the target spot.

Highly specific detection of ROR1 cancer biomarker with bipolar electrochemiluminescence

An electrochemiluminescence (ECL) detection system is presented integrated with a bipolar electrode system for sensitive cancer diagnosis. In order to achieve the highest electrical conductivity and redox-active surface area, MXene was chosen as the material for the bipolar electrode. As part of the detection process, the anodic pole of the bipolar electrode was modified with the receptor tyrosine kinase like orphan receptor 1 (ROR1) antibody, followed by an immunoassay using the ROR1 antibody-modified Ag triangle that was identified as significantly enhancing ECL. We measured the ECL of luminol using the anode pole of BPE as an analytical signal in the presence of H2O2. Additionally, 3D-printed microchannels were used to fabricate the BPE system, to reduce the quantity of sample required. It has been shown that the present immunosensors are low-cost and sensitive in detecting types of cancer, with an extended linear range of 10 fg mL-1 to 1 µg mL-1 in the analysis of synthetic samples and achieving an accuracy of ~ 90% in diagnosing ten unknown real samples.

Label-free fluorescent biosensor based on AuNPs etching releasing signal for miRNA-155 detection

Quantitative microRNA (miRNA) detection is crucial for early breast cancer diagnosis and prognosis. However, quick and stable fluorescence sensing for miRNA identification is still challenging. This work developed a novel label-free detection method based on AuNPs etching for quantitatively detecting miRNA-155. A layer of AuNPs was grown on the surface of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) loaded with Rhodamine 6G (R6G) using seed-mediated growth, followed by probe attachment. In the presence of miRNA-155, the MSN@R6G@AuNP surface loses the protection of the attached probe, rendering AuNPs susceptible to etching by hydrochloric acid. This results in a significant fluorescent signal being released in the free space. The encapsulation with AuNPs effectively reduces signal leakage, while the rapid etching process shortens detection time. This strategy enables sensitive and fast detection with a detection range of 100 fM to 100 nM, a detection limit of 2.18 fM, and a detection time of 30 min. The recovery rate in normal human serum ranges from 99.02 % to 106.34 %. This work presents a simple biosensing strategy with significant potential for application in tumor diagnosis.

Feature-based detection of breast cancer using convolutional neural network and feature engineering

Breast cancer (BC) is a prominent cause of female mortality on a global scale. Recently, there has been growing interest in utilizing blood and tissue-based biomarkers to detect and diagnose BC, as this method offers a non-invasive approach. To improve the classification and prediction of BC using large biomarker datasets, several machine-learning techniques have been proposed. In this paper, we present a multi-stage approach that consists of computing new features and then sorting them into an input image for the ResNet50 neural network. The method involves transforming the original values into normalized values based on their membership in the Gaussian distribution of healthy and BC samples of each feature. To test the effectiveness of our proposed approach, we employed the Coimbra and Wisconsin datasets. The results demonstrate efficient performance improvement, with an accuracy of 100% and 100% using the Coimbra and Wisconsin datasets, respectively. Furthermore, the comparison with existing literature validates the reliability and effectiveness of our methodology, where the normalized value can reduce the misclassified samples of ML techniques because of its generality.

WS2 nanosheets-based electrochemical biosensor for highly sensitive detection of tumor marker miRNA-4484

In this paper, a few-layer WS2 nanosheets-based electrochemical biosensor was fabricated for the highly sensitive detection of breast cancer tumor marker miRNA-4484. Firstly, few-layer WS2 nanosheets were prepared by shear stripping and characterized by SEM, TEM, AFM and UV spectrophotometer. After modification of few-layer WS2 nanosheets on the electrode surface, the miRNA probe was fixed on the few-layer WS2 nanosheets by polycytosine (PolyC). Then short-chain miRNA containing PolyC was used as the blocking agent to close the excess active sites on the surface of WS2 nanosheets to complete the fabrication of the sensor biosensing interface. Finally, the current changes caused by the specific binding of miRNA-4484 to the probe were analyzed by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The results showed that the sensor had a good linear relationship for the detection of miRNA-4484 in the concentration range of 1 aM-100 fM, and the detection limit was as low as 1.61 aM. In addition, the electrochemical sensor had excellent selectivity, stability and reproducibility. The artificial sample tests indicated that the developed biosensors have the potential for clinical application in the future.

An electrochemical immunosensor based on MXene-GQD/AuNPs for the detection of trace amounts of CA-125 as specific tracer of ovarian cancer

An electrochemical immunoassay system was developed to detect CA-125 using a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with MXene, graphene quantum dots (GQDs), and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The combined MXene-GQD/AuNPs modification displayed advantageous electrochemical properties due to the synergistic effects of MXene, GQDs, and AuNPs. The MXene-GQD composite in the modified layer provided strong mechanical properties and a large specific surface area. Furthermore, the presence of AuNPs significantly improved conductivity and facilitated the binding of anti-CA-125 on the modified GCE, thereby enhancing sensitivity. Various analytical techniques such as FE-SEM and EDS were utilized to investigate the structural and morphological characteristics as well as the elemental composition. The performance of the developed immunosensor was assessed using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV), and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). Under optimized conditions in a working potential range of -0.2 to 0.6 V (vs. Ag/AgCl), the sensitivity, linear range (LR), limit of detection (LOD), and correlation coefficient (R2) were determined to be 315.250 µA pU.mL-1/cm2, 0.1 to 1 nU/mL, 0.075 nU/mL, and 0.9855, respectively. The detection of CA-125 in real samples was investigated using the developed immunoassay platform, demonstrating satisfactory results including excellent selectivity and reproducibility.

Potentiality of phosphide-based nanotubes for breast cancer detection: A DFT investigation

Breast cancer is one of the most basilisk cancers for women due to its high mortality rate which can be prevented drastically with early-stage detection. In this work, the adsorption mechanism of two volatile organic compounds that are present in the breath of breast cancer patients, 2-Methyloctane and 3, 3-Dimethylpentane, has been investigated on aluminum phosphide nanotubes (AlPNT) and gallium phosphide nanotubes (GaPNT) in order to understand their feasibility as sensor materials to diagnosis breast cancer at early stage. We have used the quantum mechanical approach by employing density functional theory using B3LYP-D3 hybrid potential for noncovalent interaction along with the LanL2DZ basis in the Gaussian 09 software package. The adsorption properties analyses suggest that GaPNT exhibits better sensing behavior as well as proclaims 12.6% greater adsorption energy for 2-Methyloctane and 9.4% greater adsorption energy for 3, 3-Dimethylpentane than AlPNT. Other structural and electric properties analyses satisfy this conclusion and suggest that GaPNT exhibits higher stability than AlPNT and could possibly be a potential candidate for developing biosensors to detect breast cancer at the preliminary stages.

A new insight into the early detection of HER2 protein in breast cancer patients with a focus on electrochemical biosensors approaches: A review

Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of death in women and is a prevalent kind of cancerous growth, representing a substantial risk to women's health. Early detection of breast cancer is essential for effective treatment and improved survival rates. Biomarkers, active substances that signal the existence and advancement of a tumor, play a significant role in the early detection of breast cancer. Hence, accurate identification of biomarkers for tumors is crucial for diagnosing and treating breast cancer. However, the primary diagnostic methods used for the detection of breast cancer require specific equipment, skilled professionals, and specialized analysis, leading to elevated detection expenses. Regarding this obstacle, recent studies emphasize electrochemical biosensors as more advanced and sensitive detection tools compared to traditional methods. Electrochemical biosensors are employed to identify biomarkers that act as unique indicators for the onset, recurrence, and monitoring of therapeutic interventions for breast cancer. This study aims to provide a summary of the electrochemical biosensors that have been employed for the detection of breast cancer at an early stage over the past decade. Initially, the text provides concise information about breast cancer and tumor biomarkers. Subsequently, an in-depth analysis is conducted to systematically review the progress of electrochemical biosensors developed for the stable, specific, and sensitive identification of biomarkers associated with breast cancer. Particular emphasis was given to crucial clinical biomarkers, specifically the human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2). The analysis then explores the limitations and challenges inherent in the design of effective biosensors for diagnosing and treating breast cancer. Ultimately, we provided an overview of future research directions and concluded by outlining the advantages of electrochemical biosensor approaches.

Biomarker-specific biosensors revolutionise breast cancer diagnosis

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women across the globe. In order to treat breast cancer successfully, it is crucial to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the condition during its initial stages. Although mammogram screening has long been a common method of breast cancer screening, high rates of type I error and type II error results as well as radiation exposure have always been of concern. The outgrowth cancer mortality rate is primarily due to delayed diagnosis, which occurs most frequently in a metastatic III or IV stage, resulting in a poor prognosis after therapy. Traditional detection techniques require identifying carcinogenic properties of cells, such as DNA or RNA alterations, conformational changes and overexpression of certain proteins, and cell shape, which are referred to as biomarkers or analytes. These procedures are complex, long-drawn-out, and expensive. Biosensors have recently acquired appeal as low-cost, simple, and super sensitive detection methods for analysis. The biosensor approach requires the existence of biomarkers in the sample. Thus, the development of novel molecular markers for diverse forms of cancer is a rising complementary affair. These biosensor devices offer two major advantages: (1) a tiny amount of blood collected from the patient is sufficient for analysis, and (2) it could help clinicians swiftly select and decide on the best therapy routine for the individual. This review will include updates on prospective cancer markers and biosensors in cancer diagnosis, as well as the associated detection limitations, with a focus on biosensor development for marker detection.

Current Trends of Raman Spectroscopy in Clinic Settings: Opportunities and Challenges

Early clinical diagnosis, effective intraoperative guidance, and an accurate prognosis can lead to timely and effective medical treatment. The current conventional clinical methods have several limitations. Therefore, there is a need to develop faster and more reliable clinical detection, treatment, and monitoring methods to enhance their clinical applications. Raman spectroscopy is noninvasive and provides highly specific information about the molecular structure and biochemical composition of analytes in a rapid and accurate manner. It has a wide range of applications in biomedicine, materials, and clinical settings. This review primarily focuses on the application of Raman spectroscopy in clinical medicine. The advantages and limitations of Raman spectroscopy over traditional clinical methods are discussed. In addition, the advantages of combining Raman spectroscopy with machine learning, nanoparticles, and probes are demonstrated, thereby extending its applicability to different clinical phases. Examples of the clinical applications of Raman spectroscopy over the last 3 years are also integrated. Finally, various prospective approaches based on Raman spectroscopy in clinical studies are surveyed, and current challenges are discussed.

Label-free electrochemical cancer cell detection leveraging hemoglobin-encapsulated silver nanoclusters and Cu-MOF nanohybrids on a graphene-assisted dual-modal probe

Breast cancer detection at an early stage significantly increases the chances of successful treatment and survival. This study presents an electrochemical biosensor for detecting breast cancer cells, utilizing silver nanoclusters encapsulated by hemoglobin and Cu (II)-porphyrin-metal organic framework (BioMOF) in a graphene-incorporated nanohybrid probe. This Hb-AgNCs@MOF-G probe demonstrates high electrochemical activity, superior dispersity, porosity, and a large surface area for effective functionalization. Using a green ultrasonic-assisted stirring method, we fabricate ultra-small 5 nm particles that readily immobilize on a glassy carbon electrode, generating a detection signal when interacting with ferricyanide/ferrocyanide redox probes. The resulting immunosensor detects as few as 2 cells/mL using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) "signal on" and 16 cells/mL via Square Wave Voltammetry (SWV) "signal off", within a broad range of cell concentrations (102-5 × 104 cells/mL). Our designed sensor shows improved selectivity (5- to 16-fold) and robust detection in human blood with a recovery efficiency between 94.8-106% (EIS method) and 95.4-111% (SWV method). This sensor could streamline early cancer diagnosis and monitor patient treatment without requiring labelling or signal amplification. As a pioneering endeavor, we've utilized integrated porous MOFs with Hb-encapsulated silver nanoclusters in cancer detection, where these components collectively enhance the overall functionality.

Application of Biosensors in Detecting Breast Cancer Metastasis

Breast cancer has garnered global attention due to its high incidence worldwide, and even more noteworthy is that approximately 90% deaths due to breast cancer are attributed to cancer metastasis. Therefore, the early diagnosis of breast cancer metastasis holds significant importance for reducing mortality outcomes. Biosensors play a crucial role in the early detection of metastatic breast cancer due to their advantages, such as ease of use, portability, and real-time analysis capabilities. This review primarily described various types of sensors for detecting breast cancer metastasis based on biomarkers and cell characteristics, including electrochemical, optical, and microfluidic chips. We offered detailed descriptions of the performance of these various biosensors and made comparisons between them. Furthermore, we described the pathology of breast cancer and summarized commonly used biomarkers for metastatic breast cancer. Finally, we discussed the advantages of current-stage biosensors and the challenges that need to be addressed, as well as prospects for their future development.

Exploring the Potential of Sensing for Breast Cancer Detection

Breast cancer is a generalized global problem. Biomarkers are the active substances that have been considered as the signature of the existence and evolution of cancer. Early screening of different biomarkers associated with breast cancer can help doctors to design a treatment plan. However, each screening technique for breast cancer has some limitations. In most cases, a single technique can detect a single biomarker at a specific time. In this study, we address different types of biomarkers associated with breast cancer. This review article presents a detailed picture of different techniques and each technique’s associated mechanism, sensitivity, limit of detection, and linear range for breast cancer detection at early stages. The limitations of existing approaches require researchers to modify and develop new methods to identify cancer biomarkers at early stages.

Bibliometric and visualized analysis of applying tumor markers in lung cancer diagnosis from 2000 to 2022

Background

Lung cancer (LC) is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Tumor marker (TM) detection can indicate the existence and growth of a tumor and has therefore been used extensively for diagnosing LC. Here, we conducted a bibliometric analysis to examine TM-related publications for LC diagnosis to illustrate the current state and future trends of this field, as well as to identify additional promising TMs with high sensitivity.

Methods

Publications regarding TMs in LC diagnosis were downloaded from the Web of Science Core Collection. CiteSpace was applied to perform a bibliometric analysis of journals, cocitation authors, keywords, and references related to this field. VOSviewer was used to generate concise diagrams about countries, institutions, authors, and keywords. Changes in the TM research frontier were analyzed through citation burst detection.

Results

A total of 990 studies were analyzed in this work. The collaboration network analysis revealed that the People's Republic of China, Yonsei University, and Molina R were the most productive country, institution, and scholar, respectively. Additionally, Molina R was the author with the most citations. The National Natural Science Foundation of China was the largest funding source. "Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) as tumor marker in lung cancer" was the top reference with the most citations, Lung Cancer was the core journal, and "serum tumor marker" experienced a citation burst over the past 5 years.

Conclusion

This bibliometric analysis of TMs in LC diagnosis presents the current trends and frontiers in this field. We summarized the research status of this field and the methods to improve the diagnostic efficacy of traditional serum TMs, as well as provided new directions and ideas for improving the LC clinical detection rate. Priority should be given to the transformation of computer-assisted diagnostic technology for clinical applications. In addition, circulating tumor cells, exosomes, and microRNAs were the current most cutting-edge TMs.

CNT and Graphene-Based Transistor Biosensors for Cancer Detection: A Review

An essential aspect of successful cancer diagnosis is the identification of malignant tumors during the early stages of development, as this can significantly diminish patient mortality rates and increase their chances of survival. This task is facilitated by cancer biomarkers, which play a crucial role in determining the stage of cancer cells, monitoring their growth, and evaluating the success of treatment. However, conventional cancer detection methods involve several intricate steps, such as time-consuming nucleic acid amplification, target detection, and a complex treatment process that may not be appropriate for rapid screening. Biosensors are emerging as promising diagnostic tools for detecting cancer, and carbon nanotube (CNT)- and graphene-based transistor biosensors have shown great potential due to their unique electrical and mechanical properties. These biosensors have high sensitivity and selectivity, allowing for the rapid detection of cancer biomarkers at low concentrations. This review article discusses recent advances in the development of CNT- and graphene-based transistor biosensors for cancer detection.

A novel electrochemical biosensor based on AMNFs@ZIF-67 nano composite material for ultrasensitive detection of HER2

Antimonene (AMNFs) is a new kind of sp²-bonded honeycomb lattice two-dimensional material with strong rod-rail coupling, stability and hydrophilicity. Compared with graphene, antimonene has better sensitivity in DNA molecular sensing. We developed a suitable biosensor-Cd²⁺-aptamer@AMNFs@ZIF-67 nanocomposite for HER2 biomarker detection. Two-dimensional antimonene can be grown on the surface of ZIF-67 to enhance stability and biocompatibility. The aptamer chain can also be adsorbed on the surface of antimonene, and the complexes of the aptamer and the marker can be detached analytically after targeting the biomarker. The detection limit (LOD) was 4.853 fg/mL within 60 min, the detection range was 0-1000 pg/mL, and the LOD was lower than the existing HER2 aptamer biosensors. The results show that the biosensor has certain applicability and potential, and is expected to be a powerful tool for breast cancer diagnosis in the future.

Application of Various Optical and Electrochemical Nanobiosensors for Detecting Cancer Antigen 125 (CA-125): A Review

Nowadays, diagnosing early-stage cancers can be vital for saving patients and dramatically decreases mortality rates. Therefore, specificity and sensitivity in the detection of cancer antigens should be elaborately ensured. Some early-stage cancers can be diagnosed via detecting the cancer antigen CA-125, such as ovarian cancer, and required treatments can be applied more efficiently. Thus, detection of CA-125 by employing various optical or electrochemical biosensors is a preliminary and crucial step to treating cancers. In this review, a diverse range of optical and electrochemical means of detecting CA-125 are reviewed. Furthermore, an applicable comparison of their performance and sensitivity is provided, several commercial detection kits are investigated, and their applications are compared and discussed to determine whether they are applicable and accurate enough.

Recent Progress in Biosensors for Detection of Tumor Biomarkers

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide, with an increasing mortality rate over the past years. The early detection of cancer contributes to early diagnosis and subsequent treatment. How to detect early cancer has become one of the hot research directions of cancer. Tumor biomarkers, biochemical parameters for reflecting cancer occurrence and progression have caused much attention in cancer early detection. Due to high sensitivity, convenience and low cost, biosensors have been largely developed to detect tumor biomarkers. This review describes the application of various biosensors in detecting tumor markers. Firstly, several typical tumor makers, such as neuron-specific enolase (NSE), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), prostate-specific antigen (PSA), squamous cell carcinoma antigen (SCCA), carbohydrate, antigen19-9 (CA19-9) and tumor suppressor p53 (TP53), which may be helpful for early cancer detection in the clinic, are briefly described. Then, various biosensors, mainly focusing on electrochemical biosensors, optical biosensors, photoelectrochemical biosensors, piezoelectric biosensors and aptamer sensors, are discussed. Specifically, the operation principles of biosensors, nanomaterials used in biosensors and the application of biosensors in tumor marker detection have been comprehensively reviewed and provided. Lastly, the challenges and prospects for developing effective biosensors for early cancer diagnosis are discussed.

Improving the Efficiency of Oncological Diagnosis of the Breast Based on the Combined Use of Simulation Modeling and Artificial Intelligence Algorithms

This work includes a brief overview of the applications of the powerful and easy-to-perform method of microwave radiometry (MWR) for the diagnosis of various diseases. The main goal of this paper is to develop a method for diagnosing breast oncology based on machine learning algorithms using thermometric data, both real medical measurements and simulation results of MWR examinations. The dataset includes distributions of deep and skin temperatures calculated in numerical models of the dynamics of thermal and radiation fields inside biological tissue. The constructed combined dataset allows us to explore the limits of applicability of the MWR method for detecting weak tumors. We use convolutional neural networks and classic machine learning algorithms (k-nearest neighbors, naive Bayes classifier, support vector machine) to classify data. The construction of Kohonen self-organizing maps to explore the structure of our combined dataset demonstrated differences between the temperatures of patients with positive and negative diagnoses. Our analysis shows that the MWR can detect tumors with a radius of up to 0.5 cm if they are at the stage of rapid growth, when the tumor volume doubling occurs in approximately 100 days or less. The use of convolutional neural networks for MWR provides both high sensitivity (sens=0.86) and specificity (spec=0.82), which is an advantage over other methods for diagnosing breast cancer. A new modified scheme for medical measurements of IR temperature and brightness temperature is proposed for a larger number of points in the breast compared to the classical scheme. This approach can increase the effectiveness and sensitivity of diagnostics by several percent.

A Review of Transition Metal Dichalcogenides-Based Biosensors

Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) are widely used in biosensing applications due to their excellent physical and chemical properties. Due to the properties of biomaterial targets, the biggest challenge that biosensors face now is how to improve the sensitivity and stability. A lot of materials had been used to enhance the target signal. Among them, TMDCs show excellent performance in enhancing biosensing signals because of their metallic and semi-conducting electrical capabilities, tunable band gap, large specific surface area and so on. Here, we review different functionalization methods and research progress of TMDCs-based biosensors. The modification methods of TMDCs for biosensor fabrication mainly include two strategies: non-covalent and covalent interaction. The article summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of different modification strategies and their effects on biosensing performance. The authors present the challenges and issues that TMDCs need to be addressed in biosensor applications. Finally, the review expresses the positive application prospects of TMDCs-based biosensors in the future.