1
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Sommer D, Stockfleet H, Hellmann R. Optimization of Mechanical Properties and Evaluation of Fatigue Behavior of Selective Laser Sintered Polyamide-12 Components. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1366. [PMID: 38794558 PMCID: PMC11125166 DOI: 10.3390/polym16101366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
In this paper, a comprehensive study of the mechanical properties of selective laser sintered polyamide components is presented, for various different process parameters as well as environmental testing conditions. For the optimization of the static and dynamic mechanical load behavior, different process parameters, e.g., laser power, scan speed, and build temperature, were varied, defining an optimal parameter combination. First, the influence of the different process parameters was tested, leading to a constant energy density for different combinations. Due to similarities in mechanical load behavior, the energy density was identified as a decisive factor, mostly independent of the input parameters. Thus, secondly, the energy density was varied by the different parameters, exhibiting large differences for all levels of fatigue behavior. An optimal parameter combination of 18 W for the laser power and a scan speed of 2666 mm/s was determined, as a higher energy density led to the best results in static and dynamic testing. According to this, the variation in build temperature was investigated, leading to improvements in tensile strength and fatigue strength at higher build temperatures. Furthermore, different ambient temperatures during testing were evaluated, as the temperature-dependent behavior of polymers is of high importance for industrial applications. An increased ambient temperature as well as active cooling during testing was examined, having a significant impact on the high cycle fatigue regime and on the endurance limit.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sommer
- Applied Laser and Photonics Group, University of Applied Sciences, Würzburger Straße 45, 63743 Aschaffenburg, Germany
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2
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Zhou L, Miller J, Vezza J, Mayster M, Raffay M, Justice Q, Al Tamimi Z, Hansotte G, Sunkara LD, Bernat J. Additive Manufacturing: A Comprehensive Review. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2668. [PMID: 38732776 PMCID: PMC11085389 DOI: 10.3390/s24092668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing has revolutionized manufacturing across a spectrum of industries by enabling the production of complex geometries with unparalleled customization and reduced waste. Beginning as a rapid prototyping tool, additive manufacturing has matured into a comprehensive manufacturing solution, embracing a wide range of materials, such as polymers, metals, ceramics, and composites. This paper delves into the workflow of additive manufacturing, encompassing design, modeling, slicing, printing, and post-processing. Various additive manufacturing technologies are explored, including material extrusion, VAT polymerization, material jetting, binder jetting, selective laser sintering, selective laser melting, direct metal laser sintering, electron beam melting, multi-jet fusion, direct energy deposition, carbon fiber reinforced, laminated object manufacturing, and more, discussing their principles, advantages, disadvantages, material compatibilities, applications, and developing trends. Additionally, the future of additive manufacturing is projected, highlighting potential advancements in 3D bioprinting, 3D food printing, large-scale 3D printing, 4D printing, and AI-based additive manufacturing. This comprehensive survey aims to underscore the transformative impact of additive manufacturing on global manufacturing, emphasizing ongoing challenges and the promising horizon of innovations that could further elevate its role in the manufacturing revolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longfei Zhou
- Department of Biomedical, Industrial and Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Computing, College of Engineering and Business, Gannon University, Erie, PA 16541, USA
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3
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Hernandez Korner ME, Lamban MP, Albajez JA, Santolaria J, Ng Corrales LDC, Royo J. Cost Model Framework for Pieces Additively Manufactured in Fused Deposition Modeling for Low to Medium Batches. 3D PRINTING AND ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING 2024; 11:287-298. [PMID: 38389673 PMCID: PMC10880658 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2022.0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
The cost impact of implementing additive manufacturing (AM) in the fabrication process is nowadays an issue. The scope of this research is to establish a cost model framework that can predict the cost of a piece in a low to medium batch considering fused deposition modeling (FDM) printing parameters. Every enterprise wants to increase its internal capabilities for tools, prototypes, and the production of pieces for maintenance purposes. FDM is an AM technology increasingly used in aerospace, automotive, and many other sectors. The research methodology consists of developing a cost model based on the extrusion-type AM process for any given machine characteristics and comparing the cost per piece based on diverse lot sizes and raw materials. Two test cases were simulated to show the usefulness of the cost model, one with a conventional polymer material (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) and another with a high-performance material (polyetheretherketone); materials with very different costs, machine technical requirements, and energy consumption. The framework could be used to predict the best machine size and material type that could be suitable for a certain situation. The strength of our approach lies in the energy cost calculus, which is dependent on machine capabilities and size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Enrique Hernandez Korner
- Design and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- Department of Industrial Engineering, Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Ciudad de Panamá, Panamá
| | - Maria Pilar Lamban
- Design and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Jose Antonio Albajez
- Design and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Jorge Santolaria
- Design and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Lisbeth del Carmen Ng Corrales
- Design and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- Department of Industrial Engineering, Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Ciudad de Panamá, Panamá
| | - Jesús Royo
- Design and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
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4
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Presciutti A, Gebennini E, Liberti F, Nanni F, Bragaglia M. Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of SLS and mFFF Additive Manufacturing Techniques for the Production of a Metal Specimen. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 17:78. [PMID: 38203933 PMCID: PMC10779992 DOI: 10.3390/ma17010078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
This work is part of a research project aimed at developing a bio-based binder, composed mainly of polylactic acid (PLA), to produce Ti6Al4V feedstock suitable for use in MAM (Metal Additive Manufacturing) via mFFF (metal Fused Filament Fabrication), in order to manufacture a titanium alloy specimen. While in Bragaglia et al. the mechanical characteristics of this sample were analyzed, the aim used of this study is to compare the mentioned mFFF process with one of the most used MAM processes in aerospace applications, known as Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), based on the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method. Despite the excellent properties of the products manufactured via SLS, this 3D printing technology involves high upfront capital costs while mFFF is a cheaper process. Moreover, the mFFF process has the advantage of potentially being exported for production in microgravity or weightless environments for in-space use. Nevertheless, most scientific literature shows comparisons of the Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) printing stage with other AM technologies, and there are no comparative LCA "Candle to Gate" studies with mFFF processes to manufacture the same metal sample. Therefore, both MAM processes are analyzed with the LCA "Candle to Gate" method, from the extraction of raw materials to the production of the finished titanium alloy sample. The main results demonstrate a higher impact (+50%) process for mFFF and higher electrical energy consumption (7.31 kWh) compared to SLS (0.32 kWh). After power consumption, the use of titanium becomes the main contributor of Global Warming Potential (GWP) and Abiotic Depletion Potential (ADP) for both processes. Finally, an alternative scenario is evaluated in which the electrical energy is exclusively generated through photovoltaics. In this case, the results show how the mFFF process develops a more sustainable outcome than SLS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Presciutti
- Faculty of Technological and Innovation Sciences, University Mercatorum, Piazza E. Mattei Rome, 00186 Roma, Italy
| | - Elisa Gebennini
- Faculty of Technological and Innovation Sciences, University Mercatorum, Piazza E. Mattei Rome, 00186 Roma, Italy
| | - Federica Liberti
- Faculty of Technological and Innovation Sciences, University Mercatorum, Piazza E. Mattei Rome, 00186 Roma, Italy
| | - Francesca Nanni
- Department of Enterprise Engineering “Mario Lucertini”, University of Rome “Tor Vergata” and INSTM RU Roma-Tor Vergata, Via del Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Mario Bragaglia
- Department of Enterprise Engineering “Mario Lucertini”, University of Rome “Tor Vergata” and INSTM RU Roma-Tor Vergata, Via del Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
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5
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Wade AM, Peloquin DM, Matheson JM, Luxton TP. Dermal and oral exposure risks to heavy metals from 3D printing metal-fill thermoplastics. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166538. [PMID: 37625731 PMCID: PMC10653099 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Manufacturing advancements in polymer printing now allow for the addition of metal additives to thermoplastic feedstock up to 80-90 % by weight and subsequent printing on low-cost desktop 3D printers. Particles associated with metal additives are not chemically bound to the plastic polymer, meaning these particles can potentially migrate and become bioavailable. This study investigated the degree to which two human exposure pathways, oral (ingestion) and dermal (skin contact), are important exposure pathways for metals (copper, chromium, and tin) from metal-fill thermoplastics used in consumer fused filament fabrication (FFF). We found that dermal exposure to copper and bronze filaments presents the highest exposure risk due to chloride (Cl-) in synthetic sweat driving copper (Cu2+) release and dissolution. Chromium and tin were released as micron-sized particles < 24 μm in diameter with low bioaccessibility during simulated oral and dermal exposure scenarios, with potential to undergo dissolution in the gastrointestinal tract based on testing using synthetic stomach fluids. The rate of metal particle release increased by one to two orders of magnitude when thermoplastics were degraded under 1 year of simulated UV weathering. This calls into question the long-term suitability of biodegradable polymers such as PLA for use in metal-fill thermoplastics if they are designed not to be sintered. The greatest exposure risk appears to be from the raw filaments rather than the printed forms, with the former having higher metal release rates in water and synthetic body fluids for all but one filament type. For brittle feedstock that requires greater handling, as metal-fill thermoplastics can be, practices common in metal powder 3D printing such as wearing gloves and washing hands may adequately reduce metal exposure risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Wade
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, 1299 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, 5995 Center Hill Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA.
| | - Derek M Peloquin
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, 5995 Center Hill Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA.
| | - Joanna M Matheson
- U.S. Consumer Product and Safety Commission, 5 Research Place, Rockville, MD 20850, USA.
| | - Todd P Luxton
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, 5995 Center Hill Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA.
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6
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Habrman M, Chval Z, Ráž K, Kučerová L, Hůla F. Injection Moulding into 3D-Printed Plastic Inserts Produced Using the Multi Jet Fusion Method. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:4747. [PMID: 37445062 DOI: 10.3390/ma16134747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Most injection-moulded plastics are injection moulded into moulds made from conventional materials such as steel or aluminium. The production costs of the mould are considerable. 3D printing from plastic can be used for injection moulds to save these costs. This article deals with injection moulding into a 3D-printed plastic mould. The injection insert was produced on a HP Multi Jet Fusion 4200 3D printer. The other part of the mould was made of aluminium. A custom injection mould was designed for the research. One insert was made from plastic, and one from aluminium. Both moulds were injected under the same injection conditions. A comparison of injection moulding into the plastic and aluminium inserts is made in this article. The difference when injection moulding into the plastic insert is explained using the different technological conditions. The part injected into the plastic insert was also different from the part injected into the aluminium insert. The difference is explained in this article. This article also looks at the interface between the injection-moulded part and the plastic insert using an electron microscope. The images taken clarify the differences between injection moulding into a plastic insert and an aluminium insert and the differences of the injection-moulded part from the plastic insert.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Habrman
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Regional Technological Institute, University of West Bohemia, Univerzitni 8, 306 14 Plzen, Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Chval
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Regional Technological Institute, University of West Bohemia, Univerzitni 8, 306 14 Plzen, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Ráž
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Regional Technological Institute, University of West Bohemia, Univerzitni 8, 306 14 Plzen, Czech Republic
| | - Ludmila Kučerová
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Regional Technological Institute, University of West Bohemia, Univerzitni 8, 306 14 Plzen, Czech Republic
| | - František Hůla
- 3Dees Industries s.r.o., Voctářova 2497/18, 180 00 Praha, Czech Republic
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Pérez-Castillo JL, Mora A, Perez-Santiago R, Roman-Flores A, Ahmad R, Cuan-Urquizo E. Flexural Properties of Lattices Fabricated with Planar and Curved Layered Fused Filament Fabrication. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:ma16093451. [PMID: 37176330 PMCID: PMC10179957 DOI: 10.3390/ma16093451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The use of curved layers in fused filament fabrication could lead to various advantages in surface finishing and mechanical properties. Here, the influence of three different structural and manufacturing parameters (volume fraction, raster arrangement, and the use of curved or planar layers) on the mechanical properties of lattice structures under three-point bending is studied. Two different raster arrangements were considered, i.e., those with rasters at planes parallel to the principal axes of the samples and those diagonally arranged, all at four different volume fractions. All different samples were additively manufactured using planar and curved layers. Samples were further dimensionally inspected to refine the computational models before their analysis via finite element simulations. The linear elastic region of the load-displacement curves was further analyzed numerically via finite element models. Predictions with finite element models resulted in good agreement with errors below 10%. Samples with diagonal rasters were 70% softer than those parallel to the principal axes.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Luis Pérez-Castillo
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Epigmenio González 500 Fracc, San Pablo, Querétaro 76130, Mexico
| | - Angel Mora
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Rogelio Perez-Santiago
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Epigmenio González 500 Fracc, San Pablo, Querétaro 76130, Mexico
| | - Armando Roman-Flores
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, General Ramon Corona 2514, Zapopan 45138, Mexico
| | - Rafiq Ahmad
- Smart & Sustainable Manufacturing Systems Laboratory (SMART LAB), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Enrique Cuan-Urquizo
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Epigmenio González 500 Fracc, San Pablo, Querétaro 76130, Mexico
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
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8
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Wakamori K, Nagata K, Nakashizu T, Tsuruoka H, Atsumi M, Kawana H. Comparative Verification of the Accuracy of Implant Models Made of PLA, Resin, and Silicone. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:ma16093307. [PMID: 37176189 PMCID: PMC10179293 DOI: 10.3390/ma16093307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Polylactic acid (PLA) has gained considerable attention as an alternative to petroleum-based materials due to environmental concerns. We fabricated implant models with fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printers using PLA, and the accuracies of these PLA models were compared with those of plaster models made from silicone impressions and resin models made with digital light processing (DLP). A base model was obtained from an impact-training model. The scan body was mounted on the plaster, resin, and PLA models obtained from the base model, and the obtained information was converted to stereolithography (STL) data by the 3D scanner. The base model was then used as a reference, and its data were superimposed onto the STL data of each model using Geomagic control. The horizontal and vertical accuracies of PLA models, as calculated using the Tukey-Kramer method, were 97.2 ± 48.4 and 115.5 ± 15.1 μm, respectively, which suggests that the PLA model is the least accurate among the three models. In both cases, significant differences were found between PLA and gypsum and between the PLA and resin models. However, considering that the misfit of screw-retained implant frames should be ≤150 µm, PLA can be effectively used for fabricating implant models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kana Wakamori
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Implantology, Kanagawa Dental University, 82 Inaoka-cho, Yokosuka 238-8580, Japan
| | - Koudai Nagata
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Implantology, Kanagawa Dental University, 82 Inaoka-cho, Yokosuka 238-8580, Japan
| | - Toshifumi Nakashizu
- Division of the Dental Practice Support, Kanagawa Dental University, 82 Inaoka-cho, Yokosuka 238-8580, Japan
| | - Hayato Tsuruoka
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Implantology, Kanagawa Dental University, 82 Inaoka-cho, Yokosuka 238-8580, Japan
| | - Mihoko Atsumi
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Implantology, Kanagawa Dental University, 82 Inaoka-cho, Yokosuka 238-8580, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Kawana
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Implantology, Kanagawa Dental University, 82 Inaoka-cho, Yokosuka 238-8580, Japan
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Zarei M, Shabani Dargah M, Hasanzadeh Azar M, Alizadeh R, Mahdavi FS, Sayedain SS, Kaviani A, Asadollahi M, Azami M, Beheshtizadeh N. Enhanced bone tissue regeneration using a 3D-printed poly(lactic acid)/Ti6Al4V composite scaffold with plasma treatment modification. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3139. [PMID: 36823295 PMCID: PMC9950435 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30300-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanical and biological properties of polylactic acid (PLA) need to be further improved in order to be used for bone tissue engineering (BTE). Utilizing a material extrusion technique, three-dimensional (3D) PLA-Ti6Al4V (Ti64) scaffolds with open pores and interconnected channels were successfully fabricated. In spite of the fact that the glass transition temperature of PLA increased with the addition of Ti64, the melting and crystallization temperatures as well as the thermal stability of filaments decreased slightly. However, the addition of 3-6 wt% Ti64 enhanced the mechanical properties of PLA, increasing the ultimate compressive strength and compressive modulus of PLA-3Ti64 to 49.9 MPa and 1.9 GPa, respectively. Additionally, the flowability evaluations revealed that all composite filaments met the print requirements. During the plasma treatment of scaffolds, not only was the root-mean-square (Rq) of PLA (1.8 nm) increased to 60 nm, but also its contact angle (90.4°) significantly decreased to (46.9°). FTIR analysis confirmed the higher hydrophilicity as oxygen-containing groups became more intense. By virtue of the outstanding role of plasma treatment as well as Ti64 addition, a marked improvement was observed in Wharton's jelly mesenchymal stem cell attachment, proliferation (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining), and differentiation (Alkaline phosphatase and Alizarin Red S staining). Based on these results, it appears that the fabricated scaffolds have potential applications in BTE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoud Zarei
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. .,Regenerative Medicine Group (REMED), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.
| | - Motahareh Shabani Dargah
- grid.411368.90000 0004 0611 6995Department of Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahdi Hasanzadeh Azar
- grid.25073.330000 0004 1936 8227Department of Engineering Physics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Reza Alizadeh
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Fatemeh Sadat Mahdavi
- grid.46072.370000 0004 0612 7950Department of Biotechnology Engineering, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sayed Shahab Sayedain
- grid.412553.40000 0001 0740 9747Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Kaviani
- grid.412553.40000 0001 0740 9747Polymeric Materials Research Group (PMRG), Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Asadollahi
- grid.412553.40000 0001 0740 9747Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Azami
- grid.411705.60000 0001 0166 0922Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran ,grid.510410.10000 0004 8010 4431Regenerative Medicine Group (REMED), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran ,grid.411705.60000 0001 0166 0922Joint Reconstruction Research Center (JRRC), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Beheshtizadeh
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. .,Regenerative Medicine Group (REMED), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.
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10
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Nguyen P, Stanislaus I, McGahon C, Pattabathula K, Bryant S, Pinto N, Jenkins J, Meinert C. Quality assurance in 3D-printing: A dimensional accuracy study of patient-specific 3D-printed vascular anatomical models. FRONTIERS IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY 2023; 5:1097850. [PMID: 36824261 PMCID: PMC9941637 DOI: 10.3389/fmedt.2023.1097850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
3D printing enables the rapid manufacture of patient-specific anatomical models that substantially improve patient consultation and offer unprecedented opportunities for surgical planning and training. However, the multistep preparation process may inadvertently lead to inaccurate anatomical representations which may impact clinical decision making detrimentally. Here, we investigated the dimensional accuracy of patient-specific vascular anatomical models manufactured via digital anatomical segmentation and Fused-Deposition Modelling (FDM), Stereolithography (SLA), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and PolyJet 3D printing, respectively. All printing modalities reliably produced hand-held patient-specific models of high quality. Quantitative assessment revealed an overall dimensional error of 0.20 ± 3.23%, 0.53 ± 3.16%, -0.11 ± 2.81% and -0.72 ± 2.72% for FDM, SLA, PolyJet and SLS printed models, respectively, compared to unmodified Computed Tomography Angiograms (CTAs) data. Comparison of digital 3D models to CTA data revealed an average relative dimensional error of -0.83 ± 2.13% resulting from digital anatomical segmentation and processing. Therefore, dimensional error resulting from the print modality alone were 0.76 ± 2.88%, + 0.90 ± 2.26%, + 1.62 ± 2.20% and +0.88 ± 1.97%, for FDM, SLA, PolyJet and SLS printed models, respectively. Impact on absolute measurements of feature size were minimal and assessment of relative error showed a propensity for models to be marginally underestimated. This study revealed a high level of dimensional accuracy of 3D-printed patient-specific vascular anatomical models, suggesting they meet the requirements to be used as medical devices for clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Nguyen
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Ivan Stanislaus
- Faculty of Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Clover McGahon
- Faculty of Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Krishna Pattabathula
- Vascular Surgery Department, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia,Vascular Biofabrication Program, Herston Biofabrication Institute, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Samuel Bryant
- Vascular Surgery Department, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia,Vascular Biofabrication Program, Herston Biofabrication Institute, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Nigel Pinto
- Vascular Surgery Department, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia,Vascular Biofabrication Program, Herston Biofabrication Institute, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jason Jenkins
- Vascular Surgery Department, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia,Vascular Biofabrication Program, Herston Biofabrication Institute, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Christoph Meinert
- Faculty of Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia,Vascular Biofabrication Program, Herston Biofabrication Institute, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD, Australia,Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Information Technology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia,Correspondence: Christoph Meinert
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11
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Priyadarshini BM, Kok WK, Dikshit V, Feng S, Li KHH, Zhang Y. 3D printing biocompatible materials with Multi Jet Fusion for bioreactor applications. Int J Bioprint 2022; 9:623. [PMID: 36636131 PMCID: PMC9830996 DOI: 10.18063/ijb.v9i1.623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In the evolving three-dimensional (3D) printing technology, the involvement of different materials in any new 3D printing process necessitates a thorough evaluation of the product's biocompatibility for biomedical application. Here, we examined the ability of Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)-printed PA-12 to support cell proliferation and osteogenesis. Our results show that leachate from MJF-printed PA-12 does not inhibit the growth of L929 fibroblast and MC3T3e1 osteoblast. The substrate supports the attachment and proliferation of both cell types, though not at a level comparable to conventional polystyrene culture plate. Neither plasma treatment, poly-D-lysine, nor collagen coatings narrowed the gap substantially, suggesting the possible influence of other limiting factors. The substrate can also support MC3T3e1 osteogenesis. However, MJF-printed PA-12 exhibits varying ability in supporting the proliferation of different cell types, especially in subsequent passages. While L929's proliferation is comparable from passage-to-passage, MC3T3e1's growth ability is noticeably compromised. Interestingly, our results show that L929 subcultured back to polystyrene plate retains the ability to grow as robustly as those on the conventional plate, suggesting that MJF-printed PA-12 does not permanently impair cell proliferation. In addition, we have shown the successful culture of bacterial Escherichia coli on MJF-printed PA-12. Together, our study demonstrated the potential of MJF-printed PA-12 for biological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wai Kay Kok
- HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore
| | - Vishwesh Dikshit
- HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore
| | - Shilun Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200050, China,School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore
| | - King Ho Holden Li
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore,Corresponding author: King Ho Holden Li ()
| | - Yi Zhang
- HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore
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Rogati G, Caravaggi P, Leardini A. Design principles, manufacturing and evaluation techniques of custom dynamic ankle-foot orthoses: a review study. J Foot Ankle Res 2022; 15:38. [PMID: 35585544 PMCID: PMC9118871 DOI: 10.1186/s13047-022-00547-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Ankle-Foot Orthoses (AFO) can be prescribed to allow drop-foot patients to restore a quasi-normal gait pattern. Standard off-the-shelf AFOs are cost-effective solutions to treat most patients with foot and ankle weakness, but these devices have several limitations, especially in terms of comfort. Therefore, custom AFOs are increasingly adopted to address drop-foot when standard solutions are not adequate. While the solid ones are the most common type of AFO, providing full stability and strong resistance to ankle plantarflexion, passive dynamic AFOs (PD-AFOs) represent the ideal solution for patients with less severe ankle weakness. PD-AFOs have a flexible calf shell, which can bend during the stance phase of walking and absorb energy that can be released to support the limb in the push-off phase. The aim of this review is to assess the state-of-the-art and identify the current limitations of PD-AFOs. An extensive literature review was performed in Google Scholar to identify all studies on custom PD-AFOs. Only those papers reporting on custom PD-AFOs were included in the review. Non peer-reviewed papers, abstract shorter than three pages, lecture notes and thesis dissertations were excluded from the analysis. Particular attention was given to the customization principles and the mechanical and functional tests. For each topic, the main results from all relevant papers are reported and summarized herein. There were 75 papers that corresponded to the search criteria. These were grouped according to the following macro-topics: 16 focusing on scanning technologies and geometry acquisition; 14 on customization criteria; 19 on production techniques; 16 on mechanical testing, and 33 on functional testing. According to the present review, design and production of custom PD-AFOs are becoming increasingly feasible due to advancements in 3D scanning techniques and additive manufacturing. In general, custom PD-AFOs were shown to provide better comfort and improved spatio-temporal parameters with respect to standard solutions. However, no customization principle to adapt PD-AFO stiffness to the patient's degree of ankle impairment or mechanical/functional demand has thus far been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Rogati
- Movement Analysis Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Via di Barbiano 1/10, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Paolo Caravaggi
- Movement Analysis Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Via di Barbiano 1/10, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Alberto Leardini
- Movement Analysis Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Via di Barbiano 1/10, 40136 Bologna, Italy
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Spreafico C. An analysis of design strategies for circular economy through life cycle assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:180. [PMID: 35157161 PMCID: PMC8844180 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-09803-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The goal of pursuing the circular economy (CE) is spreading more and more in industry, also driven by the introduction of new regulations, considerably affecting product design. However, a quantitative and rigorous evaluation of the environmental impacts of the results obtained by different design strategies used to implementing CE is missing in the literature. Those available only evaluate certain aspects of the life cycle of few products, belonging to specific application fields, in a qualitative way or they refer only to the global warming potential. This study provides a quantitative assessment of the environmental impacts reductions arising from the application of some common design strategies for implementing different CE options (e.g. reuse, waste to energy, remanufacturing), by using some standard indicators. The results were obtained by manually analysing 156 selected case studies of comparative life cycle assessment (LCA), extracted from 136 scientific articles. In them, the environmental impacts of design solutions for CE are compared with those of other solutions were wastes are not exploited. The obtained results have been used to evaluate the different design strategies for CE and to hierarchize them based on environmental sustainability of the solutions associated with them. In addition, an economic evaluation of the strategies, based on the life cycle costing methodology and exploiting the data available in the same articles, was also provided. Among the main achievements, it was found that the hierarchy of the CE options, pursued by the design strategies, to improve environmental sustainability is different from that provided by other studies. In addition, the environmental benefits associated with the different CE options strictly depend by the applied design strategies and the considered products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Spreafico
- Department of Management, Information and Production Engineering, University of Bergamo, Via Marconi 5, 24044, Dalmine, Bergamo, Italy.
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Surface Finishing of Additive Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V Alloy: A Comparison between Abrasive Fluidized Bed and Laser Finishing. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14185366. [PMID: 34576590 PMCID: PMC8464882 DOI: 10.3390/ma14185366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Metal additive manufacturing is a major concern for advanced manufacturing industries thanks to its ability to manufacture complex-shaped parts in materials that are difficult to machine using conventional methods. Nowadays, it is increasingly being used in the industrial manufacturing of titanium-alloy components for aerospace and medical industries; however, the main weakness of structural parts is the fatigue life, which is affected by surface quality, meaning the micro-cracking of small surface defects induced by the manufacturing process. Laser finishing and Abrasive Fluidized Bed are proposed by the authors since they represent cost-effective and environment-friendly alternatives for automated surface finishing. A comparison between these two finishing technologies was established and discussed. Experimental tests investigated both mechanical properties and fatigue performances. The tests also focused on understanding the basic mechanisms involved in fatigue failures of machined Ti-6Al-4V components fabricated via Electron Beam Melting and the effects of operational parameters. X-ray tomography was used to evaluate the internal porosity to better explain the fatigue behaviour. The results demonstrated the capability of Laser finishing and Abrasive Fluidized Beds to improve failure performances. Life Cycle Analysis was additionally performed to verify the effectiveness of the proposed technologies in terms of environmental impact and resource consumption.
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Re-Engineering of an Impeller for Submersible Electric Pump to Be Produced by Selective Laser Melting. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11167375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The subject of the present study is the reproduction of a submersible electric pump impeller through reverse engineering and additive manufacturing. All of the phases commonly envisaged in the reproduction of an existing piece were carried out. The aim of the study is to show how the chosen pump component can be effectively re-engineered and produced with the selective laser melting technique, obtaining a final product that is comparable if not even better than the starting one. To achieve this goal, the original piece was redesigned and a new model was created and analyzed. The whole process has been split into three main phases: (i) realization of the three-dimensional model from an existing piece using reverse engineering techniques; (ii) finite element analysis for the optimization of the use of the material; and (iii) 3D printing of a concept model in polyethylene terephthalate by using the fused deposition modeling technology and of the functional model in AISI 316 stainless steel with selective laser melting technology.
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Bastawrous S, Wu L, Strzelecki B, Levin DB, Li JS, Coburn J, Ripley B. Establishing Quality and Safety in Hospital-based 3D Printing Programs: Patient-first Approach. Radiographics 2021; 41:1208-1229. [PMID: 34197247 DOI: 10.1148/rg.2021200175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The adoption of three-dimensional (3D) printing is rapidly spreading across hospitals, and the complexity of 3D-printed models and devices is growing. While exciting, the rapid growth and increasing complexity also put patients at increased risk for potential errors and decreased quality of the final product. More than ever, a strong quality management system (QMS) must be in place to identify potential errors, mitigate those errors, and continually enhance the quality of the product that is delivered to patients. The continuous repetition of the traditional processes of care, without insight into the positive or negative impact, is ultimately detrimental to the delivery of patient care. Repetitive tasks within a process can be measured, refined, and improved and translate into high levels of quality, and the same is true within the 3D printing process. The authors share their own experiences and growing pains in building a QMS into their 3D printing processes. They highlight errors encountered along the way, how they were addressed, and how they have strived to improve consistency, facilitate communication, and replicate successes. They also describe the vital intersection of health care providers, regulatory groups, and traditional manufacturers, who contribute essential elements to a common goal of providing quality and safety to patients. ©RSNA, 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bastawrous
- From the Department of Radiology (S.B., L.W., B.R.) and Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology (D.B.L.), University of Washington School of Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific St, Seattle WA 98195; Department of Radiology, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (S.B., L.W., B.R.); Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash (J.S.L.); Research and Development, Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (B.S., J.S.L.); and Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md (J.C.)
| | - Lei Wu
- From the Department of Radiology (S.B., L.W., B.R.) and Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology (D.B.L.), University of Washington School of Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific St, Seattle WA 98195; Department of Radiology, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (S.B., L.W., B.R.); Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash (J.S.L.); Research and Development, Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (B.S., J.S.L.); and Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md (J.C.)
| | - Brian Strzelecki
- From the Department of Radiology (S.B., L.W., B.R.) and Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology (D.B.L.), University of Washington School of Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific St, Seattle WA 98195; Department of Radiology, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (S.B., L.W., B.R.); Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash (J.S.L.); Research and Development, Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (B.S., J.S.L.); and Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md (J.C.)
| | - Dmitry B Levin
- From the Department of Radiology (S.B., L.W., B.R.) and Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology (D.B.L.), University of Washington School of Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific St, Seattle WA 98195; Department of Radiology, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (S.B., L.W., B.R.); Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash (J.S.L.); Research and Development, Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (B.S., J.S.L.); and Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md (J.C.)
| | - Jing-Sheng Li
- From the Department of Radiology (S.B., L.W., B.R.) and Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology (D.B.L.), University of Washington School of Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific St, Seattle WA 98195; Department of Radiology, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (S.B., L.W., B.R.); Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash (J.S.L.); Research and Development, Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (B.S., J.S.L.); and Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md (J.C.)
| | - James Coburn
- From the Department of Radiology (S.B., L.W., B.R.) and Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology (D.B.L.), University of Washington School of Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific St, Seattle WA 98195; Department of Radiology, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (S.B., L.W., B.R.); Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash (J.S.L.); Research and Development, Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (B.S., J.S.L.); and Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md (J.C.)
| | - Beth Ripley
- From the Department of Radiology (S.B., L.W., B.R.) and Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology (D.B.L.), University of Washington School of Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific St, Seattle WA 98195; Department of Radiology, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (S.B., L.W., B.R.); Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash (J.S.L.); Research and Development, Center for Limb Loss and MoBility (CLiMB), VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Wash (B.S., J.S.L.); and Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md (J.C.)
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Montero J, Becerro A, Pardal-Peláez B, Quispe-López N, Blanco JF, Gómez-Polo C. Main 3D Manufacturing Techniques for Customized Bone Substitutes. A Systematic Review. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14102524. [PMID: 34066290 PMCID: PMC8152095 DOI: 10.3390/ma14102524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Clinicians should be aware of the main methods and materials to face the challenge of bone shortage by manufacturing customized grafts, in order to repair defects. This study aims to carry out a bibliographic review of the existing methods to manufacture customized bone scaffolds through 3D technology and to identify their current situation based on the published papers. A literature search was carried out using "3D scaffold", "bone regeneration", "robocasting" and "3D printing" as descriptors. This search strategy was performed on PubMed (MEDLINE), Scopus and Cochrane Library, but also by hand search in relevant journals and throughout the selected papers. All the papers focusing on techniques for manufacturing customized bone scaffolds were reviewed. The 62 articles identified described 14 techniques (4 subtraction + 10 addition techniques). Scaffold fabrication techniques can be also be classified according to the time at which they are developed, into Conventional techniques and Solid Freeform Fabrication techniques. The conventional techniques are unable to control the architecture of the pore and the pore interconnection. However, current Solid Freeform Fabrication techniques allow individualizing and generating complex geometries of porosity. To conclude, currently SLA (Stereolithography), Robocasting and FDM (Fused deposition modeling) are promising options in customized bone regeneration.
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Šafka J, Ackermann M, Véle F, Macháček J, Henyš P. Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene: Additive Manufacturing by Multi Jet Fusion Technology. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14092165. [PMID: 33922827 PMCID: PMC8123042 DOI: 10.3390/ma14092165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Multi jet fusion (MJF) technology has proven its significance in recent years as this technology has continually increased its market share. Recently, polypropylene (PP) was introduced by Hewlett-Packard for the given technology. To our knowledge, little is known about the mechanical properties of polypropylene processed by MJF technology. During this study, standardised specimens were printed under all of the major orientations of the machine’s build space. Each of these orientations were represented by five samples. The specimens then underwent tensile, bending and Charpy impact tests to analyse their mechanical properties. The structural analysis was conducted to determine whether PP powder may be reused within the MJF process. The mechanical tests showed that the orientation of the samples significantly influences their mechanical response and must be carefully chosen to obtain the optimal mechanical properties of PP samples. We further showed that PP powder may be reused as the MJF process does not significantly alter its thermal and structural properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiří Šafka
- The Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovation, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 1402/2, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +420-485-353-801
| | - Michal Ackermann
- The Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovation, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 1402/2, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic;
| | - Filip Véle
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 1402/2, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic;
| | - Jakub Macháček
- Faculty of Mechatronics, Informatics and Interdisciplinary Studies, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 1402/2, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic; (J.M.); (P.H.)
| | - Petr Henyš
- Faculty of Mechatronics, Informatics and Interdisciplinary Studies, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 1402/2, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic; (J.M.); (P.H.)
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