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Rocha H, Rocha A, Malheiro J, Sousa B, Vilela A, Carneiro F, Antunes P. Development and Manufacturing of a Fibre Reinforced Thermoplastic Composite Spar Produced by Oven Vacuum Bagging. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:2216. [PMID: 39125242 PMCID: PMC11314901 DOI: 10.3390/polym16152216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 07/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/01/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The limited recyclability of fibre-reinforced thermoset composites has fostered the development of alternative thermoplastic-based composites and their manufacturing processes. The most common thermoplastic-based composites are often costly due to their availability in the form of prepreg materials and to the high pressure and temperatures required for their manufacturing. Yet, the manufacturing of economic and recyclable composites, made of semi-preg composite materials using traditional composite manufacturing technologies, has only been proved at a laboratory scale through the manufacturing of flat plates. This work reports the manufacturing of a real structural part, a wing spar section with complex geometry, made of commingled polyamide 12 (PA12) fibres and carbon fibres (CFs) semi-preg and by oven vacuum bagging (OVB). The composite layup was studied using finite element analysis, and processing simulation assisted in the determination of the PA12/CF preform for OVB. Processing of two forms of semi-preg materials was first evaluated and optimised. The material selection for part manufacturing was mainly defined by the materials' processability. The spar section was manufactured in two OVB stages and was then mechanically tested. The mechanical test showed a linear strain response of the prototype up to the maximum load and validated the optimised layup configuration of the composite structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Rocha
- PIEP—Innovation in Polymer Engineering, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
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Ares-Elejoste P, Pérez A, Gondra K, Seoane-Rivero R. Development of New Lignin-Based Coatings with Ultraviolet Resistance for Biobased Composite Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:2175. [PMID: 39125204 PMCID: PMC11314867 DOI: 10.3390/polym16152175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2024] [Revised: 07/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, there is a challenge in searching for more sustainable alternatives to decrease the environmental impact of composite materials. In this work, we fabricate new composites based on a biobased-content epoxy system, lignin, and flax fiber; considering these materials could be promising due to their high renewable content of around 40%. In addition, another key requirement for composites, besides being sustainable, is that they present improved properties such as UV resistance. Therefore, throughout this work, priority was given to improving UV resistance in addition to taking into account sustainability. In order to carry out a complete characterization of the materials developed, the mechanical properties, brightness, and thermal, rheological, and fire behavior of these kinds of materials were analyzed by using vacuum-assisted resin infusion processes. By way of conclusion, it should be noted that the manufactured composite with the optimized formulation showed improved UV resistance using lignin and that it could be applied on internal and external walls according to the railway fire regulations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Rubén Seoane-Rivero
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Parque Tecnológico de Bizkaia, Edificio 202, 48170 Zamudio, Spain
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Don DK, Reiner J, Jennings M, Subhani M. Basalt Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Laminates with Eco-Friendly Bio Resin: A Comparative Study of Mechanical and Fracture Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:2056. [PMID: 39065374 PMCID: PMC11281058 DOI: 10.3390/polym16142056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs) are widely used in industry due to their impressive strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance and high durability. One of the primary components of FRPs is synthetic resins, specifically epoxy, which has been identified as harmful to the environment. To address this concern, an eco-friendly alternative made from basalt fibres and bio resin has the potential to reduce the environmental impact. This study investigates Basalt Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (BFRP) laminates manufactured using two bio resins, AMPRO™ BIO and Change Climate, comparing them to one conventional epoxy resin, WEST SYSTEM®, in terms of tensile modulus, strength and fracture toughness, as well as shear properties. The results indicate that BFRP laminates made with bio resins exhibit comparable or better mechanical properties to their conventional counterparts with tensile strength being between 6 and 17% more in bio resins compared to the conventional resin, thereby paving the way for further exploration of sustainable FRP laminates in future engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Matt Jennings
- School of Engineering, Deakin University, 75 Pigdons Road, Waurn Ponds, VIC 3216, Australia; (D.K.D.); (J.R.); (M.S.)
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Sampino S, Ciardiello R, D’Angelo D, Cagna L, Paolino DS. Effect of the Atmospheric Plasma Treatment Parameters on the Surface and Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fabric. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:2547. [PMID: 38893811 PMCID: PMC11174026 DOI: 10.3390/ma17112547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The use of Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jet (APPJ) technology for surface treatment of carbon fabrics is investigated to estimate the increase in the fracture toughness of carbon-fiber composite materials. Nitrogen and a nitrogen-hydrogen gas mixture were used to size the carbon fabrics by preliminarily optimizing the process parameters. The effects of the APPJ on the carbon fabrics were investigated by using optical and chemical characterizations. Optical Emission Spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared-Attenuated Total Reflection, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and micro-Raman spectroscopy were adopted to assess the effectiveness of ablation and etching effects of the treatment, in terms of grafting of new functional groups and active sites. The treated samples showed an increase in chemical groups grafted onto the surfaces, and a change in carbon structure was influential in the case of chemical interaction with epoxy groups of the epoxy resin adopted. Flexural test, Double Cantilever Beam and End-Notched Flexure tests were then carried out to characterize the composite and evaluate the fracture toughness in Mode I and Mode II, respectively. N2/H2 specimens showed significant increases in GIC and GIIC, compared to the untreated specimens, and slight increases in Pmax at the first crack propagation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuele Sampino
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy;
| | - Raffaele Ciardiello
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy;
| | - Domenico D’Angelo
- Plasma Nano-Tech, Environmental Park, Via Livorno 60, 10144 Turin, Italy;
| | - Laura Cagna
- Department of Science and Technological Innovation, University of Eastern Piedmont “Amedeo Avogadro”, Viale Teresa Michel 11, 15121 Alessandria, Italy;
| | - Davide Salvatore Paolino
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy;
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Ciardiello R, Benelli A, Paolino DS. Static and Impact Properties of Flax-Reinforced Polymers Prepared with Conventional Epoxy and Sustainable Resins. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:190. [PMID: 38256989 PMCID: PMC10820720 DOI: 10.3390/polym16020190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The study assessed the tensile, flexural, and impact properties of composite materials reinforced with flax fibers, employing three distinct resin types. The composite laminates were fabricated using three commercial resins: a conventional epoxy resin, an epoxy resin with a 31% weight concentration of bio-renewable content, and a recyclable methyl methacrylate infusion resin. This aims to assess if there exists a commercially available alternative to the traditional epoxy resin that can reduce the overall carbon footprint of composite materials. To investigate the influence of humidity on the mechanical behavior of the flax layers, a drying treatment was applied to the fibers before the infusion process. Micro-computed tomography analysis revealed that heat treatment resulted in a reduction of porosity, although it did not affect the mechanical response of the composite laminates. Moreover, laminates produced with non-recyclable and sustainable resins exhibited no significant change in tensile and flexural modulus. In contrast, those produced with recyclable resin demonstrated a slight reduction in the strengths of the composite laminates. Conversely, out-of-plane impact tests and repeated impact tests indicated that composites prepared with recyclable and bio-epoxy resin formulations present superior damage resistance to repeated impact compared to traditional epoxy resin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Ciardiello
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy;
- Inter-Departmental Multi-Disciplinary Research Centre J-TECH @PoliTO, 10129 Turin, Italy;
| | - Alessandro Benelli
- Inter-Departmental Multi-Disciplinary Research Centre J-TECH @PoliTO, 10129 Turin, Italy;
- Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy
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Capretti M, Giammaria V, Santulli C, Boria S, Del Bianco G. Use of Bio-Epoxies and Their Effect on the Performance of Polymer Composites: A Critical Review. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4733. [PMID: 38139984 PMCID: PMC10747679 DOI: 10.3390/polym15244733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
This study comprehensively examines recent developments in bio-epoxy resins and their applications in composites. Despite the reliability of traditional epoxy systems, the increasing demand for sustainability has driven researchers and industries to explore new bio-based alternatives. Additionally, natural fibers have the potential to serve as environmentally friendly substitutes for synthetic ones, contributing to the production of lightweight and biodegradable composites. Enhancing the mechanical properties of these bio-composites also involves improving the compatibility between the matrix and fibers. The use of bio-epoxy resins facilitates better adhesion of natural composite constituents, addressing sustainability and environmental concerns. The principles and methods proposed for both available commercial and especially non-commercial bio-epoxy solutions are investigated, with a focus on promising renewable sources like wood, food waste, and vegetable oils. Bio-epoxy systems with a minimum bio-content of 20% are analyzed from a thermomechanical perspective. This review also discusses the effect of incorporating synthetic and natural fibers into bio-epoxy resins both on their own and in hybrid form. A comparative analysis is conducted against traditional epoxy-based references, with the aim of emphasizing viable alternatives. The focus is on addressing their benefits and challenges in applications fields such as aviation and the automotive industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Capretti
- School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (M.C.); (V.G.); (S.B.); (G.D.B.)
| | - Valentina Giammaria
- School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (M.C.); (V.G.); (S.B.); (G.D.B.)
| | - Carlo Santulli
- School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Via Gentile III da Varano 7, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Simonetta Boria
- School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (M.C.); (V.G.); (S.B.); (G.D.B.)
| | - Giulia Del Bianco
- School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (M.C.); (V.G.); (S.B.); (G.D.B.)
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