Liquid Crystalline Behavior and Related Properties of Colloidal Systems of Inorganic Oxide Nanosheets

Lyotropic liquid crystalline phases: Drug delivery and biomedical applications

Liquid crystal (LC)-based nanoformulations may efficiently deliver drugs and therapeutics to targeted biological sites. Lyotropic liquid crystalline phases (LLCPs) have received much interest in recent years due to their unique structural characteristics of both isotropic liquids and crystalline solids. These LLCPs can be utilized as promising drug delivery systems to deliver drugs, proteins, peptides and vaccines because of their improved drug loading, stabilization, and controlled drug release. The effects of molecule shape, microsegregation, and chirality are very important in the formation of liquid crystalline phases (LCPs). Homogenization of self-assembled amphiphilic lipids, water and stabilizers produces LLCPs with different types of mesophases, bicontinuous cubic (cubosomes) and inverse hexagonal (hexosomes). Moreover, many studies have also shown higher bioadhesivity and biocompatibility of LCs due to their structural resemblance to biological membranes, thus making them more efficient for targeted drug delivery. In this review, an outline of the engineering aspects of LLCPs and polymer-based LLCPs is summarized. Moreover, it covers parenteral, oral, transdermal delivery and medical imaging of LC in targeting various tissues and is discussed with a scope to design more efficient next-generation novel nanosystems. In addition, a detailed overview of advanced liquid crystal-based drug delivery for vaccines and biomedical applications is reviewed.

Development of Adsorptive Materials for Selective Removal of Toxic Metals in Wastewater: A Review

Removal of toxic metals is essential to achieving sustainability in wastewater purification. The achievement of efficient treatment at a low cost can be seriously challenging. Adsorption methods have been successfully demonstrated for possession of capability in the achievement of the desirable sustainable wastewater treatment. This review provides insights into important conventional and unconventional materials for toxic metal removal from wastewater through the adsorption process. The importance of the role due to the application of nanomaterials such as metal oxides nanoparticle, carbon nanomaterials, and associated nanocomposite were presented. Besides, the principles of adsorption, classes of the adsorbent materials, as well as the mechanisms involved in the adsorption phenomena were discussed.

Advanced Functional Liquid Crystals

Liquid crystals have been intensively studied as functional materials. Recently, integration of various disciplines has led to new directions in the design of functional liquid-crystalline materials in the fields of energy, water, photonics, actuation, sensing, and biotechnology. Here, recent advances in functional liquid crystals based on polymers, supramolecular complexes, gels, colloids, and inorganic-based hybrids are reviewed, from design strategies to functionalization of these materials and interfaces. New insights into liquid crystals provided by significant progress in advanced measurements and computational simulations, which enhance new design and functionalization of liquid-crystalline materials, are also discussed.

One-step solvent-free synthesis of carbon dot-based layered composites exhibiting color-tunable photoluminescence

We here report a practical and green approach to the development of luminescent composites through in situ solvent-free formation of carbon dots on layered inorganic compounds. The composites exhibit higher solid-state photoluminescence than those prepared by mixing of synthesized carbon dots and layered clay minerals. Tuning of the emission color of the composites has also been achieved by the addition of small molecules into phloroglucinol as starting materials for carbonization. The carbon dots synthesized in clay compounds in the solvent-free conditions are well-dispersed to obtain homogeneous composites. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that highly luminescent carbon dots are formed by carbonization in the presence of layered inorganic compounds. The one-step solvent-free approach presented in this work may allow not only facile, economical, and sustainable production of nanostructured carbon dot-based composites but also improvement of their luminescence properties.

A practical and green approach to the development of color-tunable luminescent composites through in situ solvent-free synthesis of carbon dots on layered inorganic compounds is reported.

Hybridization of MMT/Lignocellulosic Fiber Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites for Structural Applications: A Review

In the recent past, significant research effort has been dedicated to examining the usage of nanomaterials hybridized with lignocellulosic fibers as reinforcement in the fabrication of polymer nanocomposites. The introduction of nanoparticles like montmorillonite (MMT) nanoclay was found to increase the strength, modulus of elasticity and stiffness of composites and provide thermal stability. The resulting composite materials has figured prominently in research and development efforts devoted to nanocomposites and are often used as strengthening agents, especially for structural applications. The distinct properties of MMT, namely its hydrophilicity, as well as high strength, high aspect ratio and high modulus, aids in the dispersion of this inorganic crystalline layer in water-soluble polymers. The ability of MMT nanoclay to intercalate into the interlayer space of monomers and polymers is used, followed by the exfoliation of filler particles into monolayers of nanoscale particles. The present review article intends to provide a general overview of the features of the structure, chemical composition, and properties of MMT nanoclay and lignocellulosic fibers. Some of the techniques used for obtaining polymer nanocomposites based on lignocellulosic fibers and MMT nanoclay are described: (i) conventional, (ii) intercalation, (iii) melt intercalation, and (iv) in situ polymerization methods. This review also comprehensively discusses the mechanical, thermal, and flame retardancy properties of MMT-based polymer nanocomposites. The valuable properties of MMT nanoclay and lignocellulose fibers allow us to expand the possibilities of using polymer nanocomposites in various advanced industrial applications.

Adsorchromism: Molecular Nanoarchitectonics at 2D Nanosheets-Old Chemistry for Advanced Chromism

Chromism induced by changes in the electronic states of dye molecules due to surface adsorption is termed "adsorchromism" in this article. These changes of molecular electronic states are induced by protonation, aggregation, intramolecular structural changes, and other processes, depending on the surface environment. Intramolecular structural changes, such as co-planarization and decreased molecular motion are the most characteristic and interesting behavior of dye molecules at the surfaces, resulting in spectral shift and/or emission enhancement. In this review, adsorchromism at the surfaces of layered materials are summarized since their flexibility of interlayer distance, surface flatness, and transparency is suitable for a detailed observation. By understanding the relationship between adsorchromism and the electronic states of molecules on the surfaces, it will be possible to induce some desired functions which can be realized simply by adsorption, instead of complicated organic syntheses. Thus, adsorchromism has potential applications such as effective solar energy harvesting systems, or biological/chemical sensors to visualize environmental changes.

Electrically Induced Alignment of Semiconductor Nanosheets in Niobate-Clay Binary Nanosheet Colloids toward Significantly Enhanced Photocatalysis

Aqueous binary colloids of niobate and clay nanosheets, prepared by the exfoliation of their mother layered crystals, are unique colloidal systems characterized by the separation of niobate and clay nanosheet phases, where niobate nanosheets form liquid crystalline domains with the size of several tens of micrometers among isotropically dispersed clay nanosheets. The binary colloids show unusual photocatalytic reactions because of the spatial separation of photocatalytically active niobate and photochemically inert clay nanosheets. The present study shows structural conversion of the binary colloids with an external electric field, resulting in the onsite alignment of colloidal nanosheets to improve the photocatalytic performance of the system. The colloidal structure is reshaped by the growth of liquid crystalline domains of photocatalytic niobate nanosheets and by their electric alignment. Niobate nanosheets are assembled by the domain growth process and then aligned by AC voltage, although clay nanosheets do not respond to the electric field. Photocatalytic decomposition of the cationic rhodamine 6G dye, which is selectively adsorbed on clay nanosheets, is examined for the niobate-clay binary nanosheet colloids with or without domain growth and electric field. The fastest decomposition is observed for the electrically aligned colloid without the domain growth, whereas the sample with the domain growth and without the electric alignment shows the slowest decomposition. The results demonstrate the improvement of the photocatalytic performance by changing the colloidal structure, even though the sample composition is the same.

Bottom-up synthesis of titanophosphate nanosheets by the aqueous solution process

The synthesis of titanophosphate nanosheets in aqueous sols was examined by the bottom-up process. The nanosheets were formed by mixing titanium iso-propoxide, phosphoric acid, and tetraalkylammonium hydroxide (NR₄OH) aqueous solutions, followed by diluting with water and heating at 80 °C, forming translucent aqueous sols of titanophosphate nanosheets with the same crystal structure as layered titanium phosphate Ti₂O₃(H₂PO₄)₂·2H₂O. Whether the nanosheets were crystallized depended on the reactions during the mixing of reagents before the water dilution. By controlling the acid-base reactions between the Ti species, phosphoric acid, and the hydroxides of bulky cations in the aqueous sols, the one-pot process yielded highly water-dispersible, flake-like titanophosphate nanosheets. Under some synthetic conditions, nanosheets formed even in weakly basic aqueous sols. These nanosheets can be coated on a substrate with low alkali-resistance, or used for the removal of metal ions from neutral aqueous solutions.

Additive-Free MXene Liquid Crystals and Fibers

The discovery of liquid crystalline (LC) phases in dispersions of two-dimensional (2D) materials has enabled the development of macroscopically aligned three-dimensional (3D) macrostructures. Here, we report the first experimental observation of self-assembled LC phases in aqueous Ti₃C₂T _x MXene inks without using LC additives, binders, or stabilizing agents. We show that the transition concentration from the isotropic to nematic phase is influenced by the aspect ratio of MXene flakes. The formation of the nematic LC phase makes it possible to produce fibers from MXenes using a wet-spinning method. By changing the Ti₃C₂T _x flake size in the ink formulation, coagulation bath, and spinning parameters, we control the morphology of the MXene fibers. The wet-spun Ti₃C₂T _x fibers show a high electrical conductivity of ∼7750 S cm^-1, surpassing existing nanomaterial-based fibers. A high volumetric capacitance of ∼1265 F cm^-3 makes Ti₃C₂T _x fibers promising for fiber-shaped supercapacitor devices. We also show that Ti₃C₂T _x fibers can be used as heaters. Notably, the nematic LC phase can be achieved in other MXenes (Mo₂Ti₂C₃T _x and Ti₂CT _x ) and in various organic solvents, suggesting the widespread LC behavior of MXene inks.

Electric-Alignment Immobilization of Liquid Crystalline Colloidal Nanosheets with the Aid of a Natural Organic Polymer

Inorganic nanosheets obtained by exfoliation of a layered crystal in water form colloidal liquid crystals, and their alignment can be controlled by an electric field. In order to realize the immobilization of the electrically aligned niobate nanosheets without external forces, an aqueous gelator, agar, is introduced to the niobate nanosheet system to utilize the thermosensitive sol-gel transition property of agar. Alignment of nanosheets in a niobate-agar system is performed by applying an electric field above the sol-gel transition temperature, and then, the sample is cooled down, followed by cooling below the transition temperature with the electric field turned off. The aligned structure is kept for more than 24 h after the removal of the electric field. The concentration of agar is a key parameter for both the orientation of nanosheets and the retention of the orientation.

Microscope Observation of Morphology of Colloidally Dispersed Niobate Nanosheets Combined with Optical Trapping

Although inorganic nanosheets prepared by exfoliation (delamination) of layered crystals have attracted great attention as 2D nanoparticles, in situ real space observations of exfoliated nanosheets in the colloidally dispersed state have not been conducted. In the present study, colloidally dispersed inorganic nanosheets prepared by exfoliation of layered niobate are directly observed with bright-field optical microscopy, which detects large nanosheets with lateral length larger than several micrometers. The observed nanosheets are not strictly flat but rounded, undulated, or folded in many cases. Optical trapping of nanosheets by laser radiation pressure has clarified their uneven cross-sectional shapes. Their morphology is retained under the relation between Brownian motion and optical trapping.

Onset of Osmotic Swelling in Highly Charged Clay Minerals

Delamination by osmotic swelling of layered materials is generally thought to become increasingly difficult, if not impossible, with increasing layer charge density because of strong Coulomb interactions. Nevertheless, for the class of 2:1 layered silicates, very few examples of delaminating organo-vermiculites were reported in literature. We propose a mechanism for this repulsive osmotic swelling of highly charged vermiculites based on repulsive counterion translational entropy that dominates the interaction of adjacent layers above a certain threshold separation. Based on this mechanistic insight, we were able to identify several organic interlayer cations appropriate to delaminate highly charged, vermiculite-type clay minerals. These findings suggest that the osmotic swelling of highly charged organoclays is a generally applicable phenomenon rather than the odd exemption.

Layer charge robust delamination of organo-clays

To date delamination of organo-clays is restricted to highly charged, vermiculite-type layered silicates (e.g. n-butylammonium vermiculites) while – counterintuitively – low charged, smectite-type layered silicates do not delaminate although their Coulomb interactions are much weaker. Guided by previous findings, we now identified organo-cations that allowed for extending the delamination of organo clays to charge densities in the regime of low charged smectites as well. Upon intercalation of protonated amino-sugars like N-methyl-d-glucamine (meglumine) robust delamination of 2 : 1 layered silicates via repulsive osmotic swelling in water is achieved. This process is stable over a wide range of charge densities spanning from smectites (layer charge x ∼ 0.3 charges per formula unit Si₄O₁₀F₂, p.f.u.) to vermiculites (x ∼ 0.7 p.f.u.). It is evidenced that a combination of first, a sufficiently large charge equivalent area (bulkiness) of meglumine with second, a significant hydrophilicity of meglumine leads to swelling above a threshold d-spacing of ≳17.5 Å in moist air (98% r.h.). Hereby, electrostatic attraction is critically weakened, causing the onset of repulsive osmotic swelling which leads to utter delamination. Moreover, meglumine renders delamination tolerant to charge heterogeneities typically found in natural and synthetic clays.

Bulky but hydrophilic organo-cations as interlayer ions of clay minerals allow repulsive osmotic swelling irrespective of the layer charge density.

Graphene and Other 2D Colloids: Liquid Crystals and Macroscopic Fibers

Two-dimensional colloidal nanomaterials are running into renaissance after the enlightening researches of graphene. Macroscopic one-dimensional fiber is an optimal ordered structural form to express the in-plane merits of 2D nanomaterials, and the formation of liquid crystals (LCs) allows the creation of continuous fibers. In the correlated system from LCs to fibers, understanding their macroscopic organizing behavior and transforming them into new solid fibers is greatly significant for applications. Herein, we retrospect the history of 2D colloids and discuss about the concept of 2D nanomaterial fibers in the context of LCs, elaborating the motivation, principle and possible strategies of fabrication. Then we highlight the creation, development and typical applications of graphene fibers. Additionally, the latest advances of other 2D nanomaterial fibers are also summarized. Finally, conclusions, challenges and perspectives are provided to show great expectations of better and more fibrous materials of 2D nanomaterials. This review gives a comprehensive retrospect of the past century-long effort about the whole development of 2D colloids, and plots a clear roadmap - "lamellar solid - LCs - macroscopic fibers - flexible devices", which will certainly open a new era of structural-multifunctional application for the conventional 2D colloids.

Analyzing spinodal decomposition of an anisotropic fluid mixture

Spinodal decomposition leads to spontaneous fluctuations of the local concentration. In the early stage, the resulting pattern provides explicit information about the material properties of the mixture. In the case of two isotropic fluids, the static structure factor shows the characteristic ring shape. If one component is a liquid crystal, the pattern is typically anisotropic and the structure factor is more complex. Using numerical methods, we investigate how structure factors can be used to extract information about material properties like the diffusion constant or the isotropic and the anisotropic contributions to the interfacial tension. The method is based on momenta taken from structure factors in the early stage of the spinodal demixing. We perform phase field calculations for an isotropic and an anisotropic spinodal decomposition. A comparison of the extracted results with analytic values is made. The calculations show that linear modes dominate in the beginning of the growth process, while non-linear modes grow monotonously in the region of the k-space for which damping is predicted by the linearized theory. As long as non-linear modes are small enough, linearized theory can be applied to extract material properties from the structure factor.

Gas barrier properties of bio-inspired LAPONITE®-LC polymer hybrid films

Bio-inspired LAPONITE® (clay)-liquid crystal (LC) polymer composite materials with high clay fractions (>80%) and a high level of orientation of the clay platelets, i.e. with structural features similar to the ones found in natural nacre, have been shown to exhibit a promising behavior in the context of reduced oxygen transmission. Key characteristics of these bio-inspired composite materials are their high inorganic content, high level of exfoliation and orientation of the clay platelets, and the use of a LC polymer forming the organic matrix in between the LAPONITE® particles. Each single feature may be beneficial to increase the materials gas barrier property rendering this composite a promising system with advantageous barrier capacities. In this detailed study, LAPONITE®/LC polymer composite coatings with different clay loadings were investigated regarding their oxygen transmission rate. The obtained gas barrier performance was linked to the quality, respective LAPONITE® content and the underlying composite micro- and nanostructure of the coatings. Most efficient oxygen barrier properties were observed for composite coatings with 83% LAPONITE® loading that exhibit a structure similar to sheet-like nacre. Further on, advantageous mechanical properties of these LAPONITE®/LC polymer composites reported previously give rise to a multifunctional composite system.

Smectite clay--inorganic nanoparticle mixed suspensions: phase behaviour and rheology

Smectite clay minerals and their suspensions have long been of both great scientific and applications interest and continue to display a remarkable range of new and interesting behaviour. Recently there has been an increasing interest in the properties of mixed suspensions of such clays with nanoparticles of different size, shape and charge. This review aims to summarize the current status of research in this area focusing on phase behaviour and rheological properties. We will emphasize the rich range of data that has emerged for these systems and the challenges they present for future investigations. The review starts with a brief overview of the behaviour and current understanding of pure smectite clays and their suspensions. We then cover the work on smectite clay-inorganic nanoparticle mixed suspensions according to the shape and charge of the nanoparticles - spheres, rods and plates either positively or negatively charged. We conclude with a summary of the overarching trends that emerge from these studies and indicate where gaps in our understanding need further research for better understanding the underlying chemistry and physics.

Surface-functionalized monolayered nanodots of a transition metal oxide and their properties

Transition metal oxide monolayers with controlled lateral size, surface chemistry, and properties are obtained in a nonpolar organic medium.

Synergistic photocatalytic hydrogen evolution over oxide nanosheets combined with photochemically inert additives

Photocatalytic hydrogen evolution over niobate nanosheets is synergistically improved by photochemically inert clay particles and sodium chloride.

Hydrophobic monolayered nanoflakes of tungsten oxide: coupled exfoliation and fracture in a nonpolar organic medium

Coupled exfoliation and fracture induced formation of hydrophobic monolayered nanoflakes of tungsten oxide in a nonpolar organic medium.

Hierarchically structured vanadium pentoxide-polymer hybrid materials

Biomimetic composite materials consisting of vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) and a liquid crystal (LC) "gluing" polymer were manufactured exhibiting six structural levels of hierarchy, formed through LC phases. The organic matrix was a polyoxazoline with pendant cholesteryl and carboxyl units, forming a lyotropic phase with the same structural orientation extending up to hundreds of micrometers upon shearing, and binding to V2O5 via hydrogen bridges. Composites consisting of V2O5-LC polymer hybrid fibers with a pronounced layered structuring were obtained. The V2O5-LC polymer hybrid fibers consist of aligned V2O5 ribbons, composed of self-assembled V2O5 sheets, encasing a chiral nematic polymer matrix. The structures of the V2O5-LC polymer composites strongly depend on the preparation method, i.e., the phase-transfer method from aqueous to organic medium, in which the polymer forms LC phases. Notably, highly defined micro- and nanostructures were obtained when initiating the synthesis using V2O5 tactoids with preoriented nanoparticle building units, even when using isotropic V2O5 dispersions. Shear-induced hierarchical structuring of the composites was observed, as characterized from the millimeter and micrometer down to the nanometer length scales using complementary optical and electron microscopy, SAXS, μCT, and mechanical nanoindentation.

Multiphase coexistence and destabilization of liquid crystalline binary nanosheet colloids of titanate and clay

A plate-plate binary colloid system of photocatalytically active titanate and inert clay nanosheets shows macroscopically separated multiphase coexistence. Two liquid crystalline phases and one isotropic phase coexist at high titanate and low clay concentrations whereas the colloids are destabilized at high clay concentrations.

Liquid crystalline phase behavior and sol-gel transition in aqueous halloysite nanotube dispersions

The liquid crystalline phase behavior and sol-gel transition in halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) aqueous dispersions have been investigated by applying polarized optical microscopy (POM), macroscopic observation, rheometer, small-angle X-ray scattering, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The liquid crystalline phase starts to form at the HNT concentration of 1 wt %, and a full liquid crystalline phase forms at the HNT concentration of 25 wt % as observed by POM and macroscopic observation. Rheological measurements indicate a typical shear flow behavior for the HNT aqueous dispersions with concentrations above 20 wt % and further confirm that the sol-gel transition occurs at the HNT concentration of 37 wt %. Furthermore, the HNT aqueous dispersions exhibit pH-induced gelation with more intense birefringence when hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added. The above findings shed light on the phase behaviors of diversely topological HNTs and lay the foundation for fabrication of the long-range ordered nano-objects.

Hierarchical structuring of liquid crystal polymer-Laponite hybrid materials

Biomimetic organic-inorganic composite materials were fabricated via one-step self-organization on three hierarchical levels. The organic component was a polyoxazoline with pendent cholesteryl and carboxyl (N-Boc-protected amino acid) side chains that was able to form a chiral nematic lyotropic phase and bind to positively charged inorganic faces of Laponite. The Laponite particles formed a mesocrystalline arrangement within the liquid-crystal (LC) polymer phase upon shearing a viscous dispersion of Laponite nanoparticles and LC polymer in DMF. Complementary analytical and mechanical characterization techniques (AUC, POM, TEM, SEM, SAXS, μCT, and nanoindentation) covering the millimeter, micrometer, and nanometer length scales reveal the hierarchical structures and properties of the composite materials consisting of different ratios of Laponite nanoparticles and liquid-crystalline polymer.