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Yonezawa R, Hayashi K, Oyama H, Yoshitake K, Sato S, Senevirathna JDM, Smith AR, Okabe T, Suo R, Kinoshita S, Takatani T, Arakawa O, Asakawa S, Itoi S. Tissue Localization of Tetrodotoxin in the Flatworm Planocera multitentaculata (Platyhelminthes: Polycladida). MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 26:649-657. [PMID: 38861110 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-024-10332-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), a pufferfish toxin, is a highly potent neurotoxin that has been found in a wide variety of animals. The TTX-bearing flatworm Planocera multitentaculata possesses a large amount of TTX and is considered responsible for the toxification of TTX-bearing animals such as pufferfish (Takifugu and Chelonodon) and the toxic goby Yongeichthys criniger. However, the mechanism underlying TTX accumulation in flatworms remains unclear. Previous studies have been limited to identifying the distribution of TTX in multiple organs, such as the digestive organs, genital parts, and the remaining tissues of flatworms. Here, we performed liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis and immunohistochemical staining using a monoclonal anti-TTX antibody to elucidate the detailed localization of TTX in the tissues and organs of the flatworm P. multitentaculata. Immunohistochemical staining for P. multitentaculata showed that TTX-specific signals were detected not only in the ovaries and pharynx but also in many other tissues and organs, whereas no signal was detected in the brain, Lang's vesicle, and genitalia. In addition, combined with LC-MS/MS analysis, it was revealed for the first time that TTX accumulates in high concentrations in the basement membrane and epidermis. These findings robustly support the hypotheses of "TTX utilization protection from predators."
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Yonezawa
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kentaro Hayashi
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8566, Japan
| | - Kazutoshi Yoshitake
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Soshi Sato
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jayan Duminda M Senevirathna
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Animal Science and Export Agriculture, Uva Wellassa University, Badulla, 90000, Sri Lanka
| | - Ashley R Smith
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Taiki Okabe
- College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan
- Niigata Prefectural Kaiyo High School, Itoigawa, Niigata, 949-1352, Japan
| | - Rei Suo
- College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shigeharu Kinoshita
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Takatani
- Graduate School of Integrated Science and Technology, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 852-8521, Japan
| | - Osamu Arakawa
- Graduate School of Integrated Science and Technology, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 852-8521, Japan
| | - Shuichi Asakawa
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Shiro Itoi
- College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan.
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Ueda H, Ito M, Yonezawa R, Hayashi K, Tomonou T, Kashitani M, Oyama H, Shirai K, Suo R, Yoshitake K, Kinoshita S, Asakawa S, Itoi S. Japanese Planocerid Flatworms: Difference in Composition of Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogs and the Effects of Ingestion by Toxin-Bearing Fishes in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 26:500-510. [PMID: 38630353 PMCID: PMC11178581 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-024-10312-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), known as pufferfish toxin, is a potent neurotoxin blocking sodium channels in muscle and nerve tissues. TTX has been detected in various taxa other than pufferfish, including marine polyclad flatworms, suggesting that pufferfish toxin accumulates in fish bodies via food webs. The composition of TTX and its analogs in the flatworm Planocera multitentaculata was identical to those in wild grass puffer Takifugu alboplumbeus. Previously, Planocera sp. from Okinawa Island, Japan, were reported to possess high level of TTX, but no information was available on TTX analogs in this species. Here we identified TTX and analogs in the planocerid flatworm using high-resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and compared the composition of TTX and analogs with those of another toxic and non-toxic planocerid species. We show that the composition of TTX and several analogs, such as 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, dideoxyTTXs, deoxyTTXs, and 11-norTTX-6(S)-ol, of Planocera sp. was identical to those of toxic species, but not to its non-toxic counterpart. The difference in the toxin composition was reflected in the phylogenetic relationship based on the mitochondrial genome sequence. A toxification experiment using predatory fish and egg plates of P. multitentaculata demonstrated that the composition of TTX and analogs in wild T. alboplumbeus juveniles was reproduced in artificially toxified pufferfish. Additionally, feeding on the flatworm egg plates enhanced the signal intensities of all TTX compounds in Chelonodon patoca and that of deoxyTTXs in Yongeichthys criniger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Ueda
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Masaaki Ito
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Ryo Yonezawa
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Kentaro Hayashi
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Taiga Tomonou
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Maho Kashitani
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8566, Japan
| | - Kyoko Shirai
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Rei Suo
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Kazutoshi Yoshitake
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Shigeharu Kinoshita
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Shuichi Asakawa
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Shiro Itoi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan.
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3
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Miyazaki K, Suo R, Itoi S, Hirota J, Adachi M, Miyasaka T, Nishikawa T, Yokoyama T, Sato S, Takada K. 5, 6, 11-trideoxy tetrodotoxin attracts tiger puffer Takifugu rubripes. Toxicon 2024; 237:107539. [PMID: 38042308 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin that binds to voltage-gated sodium channels and blocks the passage of sodium ions. TTX is widely distributed in both terrestrial and marine organisms, and the toxic puffers are believed to accumulate TTX through the food chain. Although pufferfish was previously thought to be attracted by TTX, recent finding from electroolfactogram (EOG) studies have indicated that the olfactory epithelium of T. alboplumbeus responded to 5, 6, 11-trideoxyTTX (TDT), but not to TTX itself. In this study, we examined behavioral experiments for Takifugu rubripes to distinguish between TTX and TDT under static and flow-through conditions. Our data clearly suggested that T. rubripes juveniles were attracted to TDT, not TTX. Moreover, we determined that the minimum effective dose of TDT to attract the puffer was 1-2 nmol of TDT under static conditions and 50-60 nmol of TDT under flow-through conditions. Following the experiments under static conditions, numerous bite marks by the pufferfish were found solely on the agarose gel infused with TDT. Based on these finding, we hypothesize that the pufferfish are attracted to TDT derived from prey, leading them effectively become toxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kairi Miyazaki
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Japan
| | - Rei Suo
- College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Japan
| | - Shiro Itoi
- College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Japan
| | - Junji Hirota
- Graduate School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
| | - Masaatsu Adachi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Japan
| | | | - Toshio Nishikawa
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Japan
| | | | - Shigeru Sato
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Japan
| | - Kentaro Takada
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Japan.
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Asano M, Ishizaki C, Tomonou T, Kihara M, Ito M, Yasukawa S, Shirai K, Oyama H, Izawa S, Kawamura R, Saito K, Suo R, Nakahigashi R, Adachi M, Nishikawa T, Sugita H, Itoi S. Levels of Tetrodotoxins in Spawning Pufferfish, Takifugu alboplumbeus. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:md21040207. [PMID: 37103347 PMCID: PMC10141859 DOI: 10.3390/md21040207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), also known as pufferfish toxin, is an extremely potent neurotoxin thought to be used as a biological defense compound in organisms bearing it. Although TTX was thought to function as a chemical agent for defense and anti-predation and an attractant for TTX-bearing animals including pufferfish, it has recently been demonstrated that pufferfish were also attracted to 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, a related compound, rather than TTX alone. In this study, we attempted to estimate the roles of TTXs (TTX and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX) in the pufferfish, Takifugu alboplumbeus, through examining the location of TTXs in various tissues of spawning pufferfish from Enoshima and Kamogawa, Japan. TTXs levels in the Kamogawa population were higher than those in the Enoshima population, and there was no significant difference in the amount of TTXs between the sexes in either population. Individual differences were greater in females than in males. However, the location of both substances in tissues differed significantly between sexes: male pufferfish accumulated most of their TTX in the skin and liver and most of their 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX in the skin, whereas females accumulated most of their TTX and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX in the ovaries and skin.
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Zhang H, Li P, Wu B, Hou J, Ren J, Zhu Y, Xu J, Si F, Sun Z, Liu X. Transcriptomic analysis reveals the genes involved in tetrodotoxin (TTX) accumulation, translocation, and detoxification in the pufferfish Takifugu rubripes. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 303:134962. [PMID: 35580645 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent marine neurotoxin that exists in a variety of aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Pufferfish in different habitats show great variation in their TTX contents. Exploring the genes involved in TTX metabolism could contribute to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying TTX accumulation, translocation, and detoxification in pufferfish. In this study, transcriptomic analysis was used to identify the functional genes related to TTX metabolism in the blood, liver, and muscle of the toxic and non-toxic tiger puffer (Takifugu rubripes). A total of 6101 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained after transcriptomic analysis; of these, 2401 were identified in the blood, 2262 in the liver, and 1438 in the muscle. After enrichment analysis, fourteen genes encoding glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), thioredoxins (TXNs), superoxide dismutase (SOD), ATP-binding cassettes (ABCs), apolipoproteins (APOs), inhibitors of apoptosis protein (IAP), and solute carrier (SLC), which are mainly antioxidant enzymes, membrane transporters, or anti-apoptotic factors, were revealed in the blood. Thirty-six genes encoding SLCs, ABCs, long-chain-fatty-acid-CoA ligases (ACSLs), interleukin 6 cytokine family signal transducer (IL6ST), endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and heat shock protein family A (Hsp70) were involved in transmembrane transporter activity and innate immune response. Notably, a large number of slc genes were found to play critical and diverse roles in TTX accumulation and translocation in the liver of T. rubripes. Nine genes from the slc, hsp70, complement C5 (c5), acsl, er, and serpin peptidase inhibitor (serpin) gene families were found to participate in the regulation of protein processing and anti-apoptosis. These results reflect the diverse functions of genes closely related to TTX accumulation, translocation, and detoxification in T. rubripes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanyuan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Genomics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Fishery Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing, 100141, China.
| | - Peizhen Li
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Genomics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Fishery Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing, 100141, China
| | - Biyin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Genomics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Fishery Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing, 100141, China
| | - Jilun Hou
- Beidaihe Central Experiment Station, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qinhuangdao, Hebei, 066100, China
| | - Jiangong Ren
- Beidaihe Central Experiment Station, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qinhuangdao, Hebei, 066100, China
| | - Youxiu Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Genomics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Fishery Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing, 100141, China
| | - Jian Xu
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Genomics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Fishery Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing, 100141, China
| | - Fei Si
- Beidaihe Central Experiment Station, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qinhuangdao, Hebei, 066100, China
| | - Zhaohui Sun
- Beidaihe Central Experiment Station, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qinhuangdao, Hebei, 066100, China
| | - Xia Liu
- Beidaihe Central Experiment Station, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qinhuangdao, Hebei, 066100, China
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Ito M, Furukawa R, Yasukawa S, Sato M, Oyama H, Okabe T, Suo R, Sugita H, Takatani T, Arakawa O, Adachi M, Nishikawa T, Itoi S. Local Differences in the Toxin Amount and Composition of Tetrodotoxin and Related Compounds in Pufferfish ( Chelonodon patoca) and Toxic Goby ( Yongeichthys criniger) Juveniles. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:150. [PMID: 35202177 PMCID: PMC8876675 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX)-bearing fish ingest TTX from their preys through the food chain and accumulate TTX in their bodies. Although a wide variety of TTX-bearing organisms have been reported, the missing link in the TTX supply chain has not been elucidated completely. Here, we investigated the composition of TTX and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX in juveniles of the pufferfish, Chelonodon patoca, and toxic goby, Yongeichthys criniger, using LC-MS/MS, to resolve the missing link in the TTX supply chain. The TTX concentration varied among samples from different localities, sampling periods and fish species. In the samples from the same locality, the TTX concentration was significantly higher in the toxic goby juveniles than in the pufferfish juveniles. The concentration of TTX in all the pufferfish juveniles was significantly higher than that of 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, whereas the compositional ratio of TTX and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX in the goby was different among sampling localities. However, the TTX/5,6,11-trideoxyTTX ratio in the goby was not different among samples collected from the same locality at different periods. Based on a species-specific PCR, the detection rate of the toxic flatworm (Planocera multitentaculata)-specific sequence (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) also varied between the intestinal contents of the pufferfish and toxic goby collected at different localities and periods. These results suggest that although the larvae of the toxic flatworm are likely to be responsible for the toxification of the pufferfish and toxic goby juveniles by TTX, these fish juveniles are also likely to feed on other TTX-bearing organisms depending on their habitat, and they also possess different accumulation mechanisms of TTX and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaaki Ito
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Risako Furukawa
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Shino Yasukawa
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Masaya Sato
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Taiki Okabe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Rei Suo
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Haruo Sugita
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Tomohiro Takatani
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (T.T.); (O.A.)
| | - Osamu Arakawa
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (T.T.); (O.A.)
| | - Masaatsu Adachi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan;
| | - Toshio Nishikawa
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan;
| | - Shiro Itoi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa 252-0880, Japan; (M.I.); (R.F.); (S.Y.); (M.S.); (H.O.); (T.O.); (R.S.); (H.S.)
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7
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Okabe T, Saito R, Yamamoto K, Watanabe R, Kaneko Y, Yanaoka M, Furukoshi S, Yasukawa S, Ito M, Oyama H, Suo R, Suzuki M, Takatani T, Arakawa O, Sugita H, Itoi S. The role of toxic planocerid flatworm larvae on tetrodotoxin accumulation in marine bivalves. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2021; 237:105908. [PMID: 34273772 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2021.105908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), also known as pufferfish toxin, has been detected in marine edible bivalves worldwide. In this study, several bivalve species, Azumapecten farreri subsp. akazara, Patinopecten yessoensis and Mytilus galloprovincialis, collected from the Pacific side of the northern Japanese Islands, were studied for the accumulation of TTX in the presence of toxic planocerid larvae. LC-MS/MS analysis demonstrated that TTX was detected only in the midgut gland of A. farreri subsp. akazara. Toxic flatworm-specific PCR and direct sequencing of the amplicons showed that the DNA fragments of the Planocera multitentaculata COI gene were detected in the gut contents of the toxified bivalves. The planocerid larvae were also detected in the environmental seawaters. Toxification experiments in the aquarium demonstrated that the mussel M. galloprovincialis was also toxified by feeding on the toxic flatworm larvae. These results suggest that the source of TTX accumulation in edible bivalves is toxic flatworm larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taiki Okabe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Rion Saito
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Kohei Yamamoto
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Riku Watanabe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Kaneko
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Mutsumi Yanaoka
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Seika Furukoshi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Shino Yasukawa
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Masaaki Ito
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Rei Suo
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Miwa Suzuki
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Takatani
- Graduate School of Fisheries Science and Environmental Studies, Nagasaki University, Bunkyo 1-14, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
| | - Osamu Arakawa
- Graduate School of Fisheries Science and Environmental Studies, Nagasaki University, Bunkyo 1-14, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
| | - Haruo Sugita
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Shiro Itoi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan.
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8
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Natural Products in Polyclad Flatworms. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19020047. [PMID: 33494164 PMCID: PMC7909797 DOI: 10.3390/md19020047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine invertebrates are promising sources of novel bioactive secondary metabolites, and organisms like sponges, ascidians and nudibranchs are characterised by possessing potent defensive chemicals. Animals that possess chemical defences often advertise this fact with aposematic colouration that potential predators learn to avoid. One seemingly defenceless group that can present bright colouration patterns are flatworms of the order Polycladida. Although members of this group have typically been overlooked due to their solitary and benthic nature, recent studies have isolated the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin from these mesopredators. This review considers the potential of polyclads as potential sources of natural products and reviews what is known of the activity of the molecules found in these animals. Considering the ecology and diversity of polyclads, only a small number of species from both suborders of Polycladida, Acotylea and Cotylea have been investigated for natural products. As such, confirming assumptions as to which species are in any sense toxic or if the compounds they use are biosynthesised, accumulated from food or the product of symbiotic bacteria is difficult. However, further research into the group is suggested as these animals often display aposematic colouration and are known to prey on invertebrates rich in bioactive secondary metabolites.
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First Detection of Tetrodotoxins in the Cotylean Flatworm Prosthiostomum trilineatum. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19010040. [PMID: 33477411 PMCID: PMC7830031 DOI: 10.3390/md19010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Several polyclad flatworm species are known to contain high levels of tetrodotoxin (TTX), but currently TTX-bearing flatworms seem to be restricted to specific Planocera lineages belonging to the suborder Acotylea. During our ongoing study of flatworm toxins, high concentrations of TTXs were detected for the first time in the flatworm Prosthiostomum trilineatum, suborder Cotylea, from the coastal area of Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan. Toxin levels were investigated by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), revealing that this species contains comparable concentrations of toxins as seen in planocerid flatworms such as Planocera multitentaculata. This finding indicated that there may be other species with significant levels of TTXs. The distribution of TTXs among other flatworm species is thus of great interest.
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10
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Kashitani M, Okabe T, Oyama H, Noguchi K, Yamazaki H, Suo R, Mori T, Sugita H, Itoi S. Taxonomic Distribution of Tetrodotoxin in Acotylean Flatworms (Polycladida: Platyhelminthes). MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2020; 22:805-811. [PMID: 32415408 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-020-09968-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), also known as pufferfish toxin, causes a respiratory disorder by blocking neurotransmission, with voltage-gated sodium channel inhibition on muscle and nerve tissues. The toxin is widely distributed across vertebrates, invertebrates and bacteria. Therefore, it is generally thought that TTX in pufferfish accumulates via the food webs, beginning with marine bacteria as a primary producer. Polyclad flatworms in the genus Planocera are also known to be highly toxic, TTX-bearing organisms. Unlike the case of pufferfish, the source of TTX in these flatworms is unknown. In this study, taxonomical distribution patterns of TTX were investigated for acotylean flatworms from coastal waters using molecular phylogenetic analysis and high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A maximum likelihood tree based on the 28S rRNA gene sequence showed that the flatworms belonged to several different lineages among the genera Planocera, Stylochus, Paraplanocera, Discocelis, Notocomplana, Notoplana, Callioplana and Peudostylochus. After LC-MS/MS analysis, the distribution of TTX was mapped onto the molecular phylogenetic tree. TTX-bearing flatworm species were seen to be restricted to specific Planocera lineages, suggesting that the TTX-bearing flatworm species have common genes for TTX-accumulating mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maho Kashitani
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Taiki Okabe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Kaede Noguchi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Haruka Yamazaki
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8588, Japan
| | - Rei Suo
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Tetsushi Mori
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8588, Japan
| | - Haruo Sugita
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Shiro Itoi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, 252-0880, Japan.
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11
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Itoi S, Sato T, Takei M, Yamada R, Ogata R, Oyama H, Teranishi S, Kishiki A, Wada T, Noguchi K, Abe M, Okabe T, Akagi H, Kashitani M, Suo R, Koito T, Takatani T, Arakawa O, Sugita H. The planocerid flatworm is a main supplier of toxin to tetrodotoxin-bearing fish juveniles. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 249:126217. [PMID: 32088461 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), a potent neurotoxin, is found in various phylogenetically diverse taxa. In marine environments, the pufferfish is at the top of the food chain among TTX-bearing organisms. The accumulation of TTX in the body of pufferfish appears to be of the food web that begins with bacteria. It is known that toxic pufferfishes possess TTX from the larval/juvenile stage. However, the source of the TTX is unknown because the maternally sourced TTX is extremely small in quantity. Therefore, the TTX has to be obtained from other organisms or directly from the environment. Here, we report evidence that the source of TTX for toxic fish juveniles including the pufferfish (Chelonodon patoca) and the goby (Yongeichthys criniger) is in the food organisms, as seen in their gut contents. Next generation sequencing analysis for the mitochondrial COI gene showed that the majority of the sequence recovered from intestinal contents of these toxic fishes belonged to the flatworm Planocera multitentaculata, a polyclad flatworm containing highly concentrated TTX from the larval stage. PCR specific to P. multitentaculata also showed that DNA encoding the planocerid COI gene was strongly detected in the intestinal contents of the goby and pufferfish juveniles. Additionally, the planocerid specific COI sequence was detected in the environmental seawater collected from the water around the sampling locations for TTX-bearing fish. These results suggest that planocerid larvae are the major TTX supplier for juveniles of TTX-bearing fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiro Itoi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan.
| | - Tatsunori Sato
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Mitsuki Takei
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Riko Yamada
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Ryuya Ogata
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Shun Teranishi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Ayano Kishiki
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Takenori Wada
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Kaede Noguchi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Misato Abe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Taiki Okabe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Akagi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Maho Kashitani
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Rei Suo
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Tomoko Koito
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Takatani
- Graduate School of Fisheries Science and Environmental Studies, Nagasaki University, Bunkyo 1-14, Nagasaki, 852-8521, Japan
| | - Osamu Arakawa
- Graduate School of Fisheries Science and Environmental Studies, Nagasaki University, Bunkyo 1-14, Nagasaki, 852-8521, Japan
| | - Haruo Sugita
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
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12
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Itoi S, Tabuchi S, Abe M, Ueda H, Oyama H, Ogata R, Okabe T, Kishiki A, Sugita H. Difference in tetrodotoxin content between two sympatric planocerid flatworms, Planocera multitentaculata and Planocera reticulata. Toxicon 2019; 173:57-61. [PMID: 31778684 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Planocerid flatworms and the related species (Platyhelminthes: polycladida) are known as tetrodotoxin (TTX)-bearing organisms, and they contribute to toxification of marine organisms at higher trophic levels, such as pufferfish and sea slugs. However, little is known of their biology or ecology. In this study, we therefore investigated the occurrence and toxicity of two sympatric planocerids, Planocera multitentaculata and Planocera reticulata, in intertidal zones of the central region of mainland Honshu, Japanese Islands. Planocera multitentaculata was much more abundant than P. reticulata. Body weight was greater in P. multitentaculata than in P. reticulata. Although a significant difference in TTX concentration was not observed between the two species, total TTX content per individual was greater in P. multitentaculata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiro Itoi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan.
| | - Sora Tabuchi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Misato Abe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ueda
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Ryuya Ogata
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Taiki Okabe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Ayano Kishiki
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Haruo Sugita
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
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13
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Okabe T, Oyama H, Kashitani M, Ishimaru Y, Suo R, Sugita H, Itoi S. Toxic Flatworm Egg Plates Serve as a Possible Source of Tetrodotoxin for Pufferfish. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E402. [PMID: 31373322 PMCID: PMC6669758 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11070402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The pufferfish Takifugu niphobles (at present Takifugu alboplumbeus) possesses highly concentrated tetrodotoxin (TTX), an extremely potent neurotoxin that provides effective protection from predators, at least at the larval stages. However, the source of the toxin has remained unclear. Recently, DNA from the toxic flatworm Planocera multitentaculata was detected in the intestinal contents of juveniles and young of the pufferfish, suggesting that the flatworm contributes to its toxification at various stages of its life. In this study, we describe the behavior of the pufferfish in the intertidal zone that appears to contribute to its toxification before and during its spawning period: pufferfish were found to aggregate and ingest flatworm egg plates by scraping them off the surface of rocks. DNA analysis based on 28S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) genes identified the egg plates as those of P. multitentaculata. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the egg plates contain highly concentrated TTX. The feeding behavior of the pufferfish on the flatworm egg plates was also observed in the aquarium. These results suggest that pufferfish feed on the flatworm egg plate, which enables them to acquire toxicity themselves while providing their offspring with the protective shield of TTX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taiki Okabe
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Maho Kashitani
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Yuta Ishimaru
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Rei Suo
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Haruo Sugita
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Shiro Itoi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan.
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14
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Göransson U, Jacobsson E, Strand M, Andersson HS. The Toxins of Nemertean Worms. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E120. [PMID: 30781381 PMCID: PMC6410017 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Most ribbon worms (phylum: Nemertea) are found in marine environments, where they act as predators and scavengers. They are characterized by an eversible proboscis that isused to hunt for prey and thick mucus covering their skin. Both proboscis and epidermal mucus mediate toxicity to predators and preys. Research into the chemical nature of the substances that render toxicity has not been extensive, but it has nevertheless led to the identification of several compounds of potential medicinal use or for application in biotechnology. This review provides a complete account of the current status of research into nemertean toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Göransson
- Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Erik Jacobsson
- Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Malin Strand
- Swedish Species Information Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Håkan S Andersson
- Linnaeus University Centre for Biomaterials Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Linnaeus University, 39231 Kalmar, Sweden.
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15
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Itoi S, Ueda H, Yamada R, Takei M, Sato T, Oshikiri S, Wajima Y, Ogata R, Oyama H, Shitto T, Okuhara K, Tsunashima T, Sawayama E, Sugita H. Including planocerid flatworms in the diet effectively toxifies the pufferfish, Takifugu niphobles. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12302. [PMID: 30120305 PMCID: PMC6098040 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30696-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Beginning with the larval stages, marine pufferfish such as Takifugu niphobles contain tetrodotoxin (TTX), an extremely potent neurotoxin. Although highly concentrated TTX has been detected in adults and juveniles of these fish, the source of the toxin has remained unclear. Here we show that TTX in the flatworm Planocera multitentaculata contributes to the toxification of the pufferfish throughout the life cycle of the flatworm. A species-specific PCR method was developed for the flatworm, and the specific DNA fragment was detected in the digesta of wild pufferfish adults. Predation experiments showed that flatworm larvae were eaten by the pufferfish juveniles, and that the two-day postprandial TTX content in these pufferfish was 20–50 μg/g. Predation experiments additionally showed flatworm adults were also eaten by pufferfish young, and after two days of feeding, TTX accumulated in the skin, liver and intestine of the pufferfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiro Itoi
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Ueda
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Riko Yamada
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Mitsuki Takei
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Tatsunori Sato
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Shotaro Oshikiri
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Wajima
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Ryuya Ogata
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hikaru Oyama
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Takahiro Shitto
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Kazuya Okuhara
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Tadasuke Tsunashima
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
| | - Eitaro Sawayama
- R&D Division, Marua Suisan Co., Ltd. Kamijima, Ehime, 794-2410, Japan
| | - Haruo Sugita
- Department of Marine Science and Resources, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan
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16
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Role of maternal tetrodotoxin in survival of larval pufferfish. Toxicon 2018; 148:95-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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17
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Turner AD, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Dean K, Milligan S, Hamilton M, Thomas J, Poole C, Haycock J, Spelman-Marriott J, Watson A, Hughes K, Marr B, Dixon A, Coates L. Fatal Canine Intoxications Linked to the Presence of Saxitoxins in Stranded Marine Organisms Following Winter Storm Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E94. [PMID: 29495385 PMCID: PMC5869382 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10030094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
At the start of 2018, multiple incidents of dog illnesses were reported following consumption of marine species washed up onto the beaches of eastern England after winter storms. Over a two-week period, nine confirmed illnesses including two canine deaths were recorded. Symptoms in the affected dogs included sickness, loss of motor control, and muscle paralysis. Samples of flatfish, starfish, and crab from the beaches in the affected areas were analysed for a suite of naturally occurring marine neurotoxins of dinoflagellate origin. Toxins causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) were detected and quantified using two independent chemical testing methods in samples of all three marine types, with concentrations over 14,000 µg saxitoxin (STX) eq/kg found in one starfish sample. Further evidence for PSP intoxication of the dogs was obtained with the positive identification of PSP toxins in a vomited crab sample from one deceased dog and in gastrointestinal samples collected post mortem from a second affected dog. Together, this is the first report providing evidence of starfish being implicated in a PSP intoxication case and the first report of PSP in canines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Karl Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Steven Milligan
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Mike Hamilton
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Julie Thomas
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Chris Poole
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Jo Haycock
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Jo Spelman-Marriott
- Taverham Veterinary Hospital, Fir Covert Road, Taverham, Norwich, Norfolk NR8 6HT, UK.
| | - Alice Watson
- Taverham Veterinary Hospital, Fir Covert Road, Taverham, Norwich, Norfolk NR8 6HT, UK.
| | - Katherine Hughes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK.
| | - Bridget Marr
- Environment Agency, Dragonfly House, 2 Gilders Way, Norwich, Norfolk NR3 1UB, UK.
| | - Alan Dixon
- North Norfolk District Council, Holt Road, Cromer, Norfolk, NR27 9EN, UK.
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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