Phylogenetic identification of fungi isolated from the marine sponge Tethya aurantium and identification of their secondary metabolites

Long-Term Investigation of Marine-Derived Aspergillus Diversity in the Republic of Korea

Aspergillus species play a crucial role in terrestrial environments as degraders and are well known for producing various secondary metabolites. Recently, Aspergillus species have been discovered in marine environments, exhibiting adaptability to high salinity and producing diverse secondary metabolites with valuable properties. However, limited research has focused on their marine diversity, leading to inaccurate species identification. The current study addresses this gap by investigating diverse marine habitats in the Republic of Korea, including sediment, seawater, seaweed, and marine animals. From three coasts of the Korean Peninsula, 472 Aspergillus strains were isolated from the various marine habitats. A total of 41 species were accurately identified using multigenetic markers: internal transcribed spacer, calmodulin, and β-tubulin. The findings underscore the importance of accurate identification and provide a basis for elucidating the functional role of marine-derived Aspergillus species in marine ecosystems.

Diversity of fungi from marine inundated wood from the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Canada

Marine fungi play an integral role in the decomposition of intertidal organic substrata but remain understudied in cold-water habitats including Atlantic Canada. Marine inundated wood from the intertidal zone was sampled from 30 sites along the Bay of Fundy coastline in Nova Scotia, Canada. Wood types studied included attached and loose intertidal wood, and driftwood. Emergent fungi were cultured and identified using ITS (internal transcribed spacers) rDNA barcoding. Two hundred and twenty cultures representing 86 fungi are reported. Sixty-one fungi were new records for the Bay of Fundy, 41 are first records from the marine environment, and 19 fungi are potentially new to science. Fungi identified included eight obligate marine fungi, with the remaining fungi being facultatively marine. Eight ascomycetes were soft rot fungi; this ecological strategy for decaying woody material in cold-water marine environments is discussed. Historical records and roles of wood type and site on fungal colonization are discussed.

Cultivable Fungal Endophytes in Roots, Rhizomes and Leaves of Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile along the Coast of Sicily, Italy

The presence of endophytic fungi in the roots, rhizomes, and leaves of Posidonia oceanica was evaluated in different localities of the Sicilian coast. Samples of roots, rhizomes, and leaves were submitted to isolation techniques, and the obtained fungal colonies were identified by morphological and molecular (rRNA sequencing) analysis. Fungal endophytes occurred mainly in roots and occasionally in rhizomes and leaves. Lulwoana sp. was the most frequent of the isolated taxa, suggesting a strong interaction with the host. In addition, eight other fungal taxa were isolated. In particular, fungi of the genus Ochroconis and family Xylariaceae were identified as endophytes in healthy plants at all sampling stations, whereas Penicillium glabrum was isolated at only one sampling station. Thus, several organs, especially roots of Posidonia oceanica, harbor endophytic fungi, potentially involved in supporting the living host as ascertained for terrestrial plants.

Fusaripyridines A and B; Highly Oxygenated Antimicrobial Alkaloid Dimers Featuring an Unprecedented 1,4-Bis(2-hydroxy-1,2-dihydropyridin-2-yl)butane-2,3-dione Core from the Marine Fungus Fusarium sp. LY019

The fungal strain, Fusarium sp. LY019, was obtained from the Red Sea sponge Suberea mollis. Bioassay-directed partition of the antimicrobial fraction of the extract of the culture of the fungus provided two dimeric alkaloids, fusaripyridines A and B (1 and 2). The compounds possess a previously unreported moiety, 1,4-bis(2-hydroxy-1,2-dihydropyridin-2-yl)butane-2,3-dione. Further, the compounds display a highly oxygenated substitution pattern on the dihydropyridine moieties, representing an additional feature of the fusaripyridines. Fusaripyridines A and B are the first examples of natural products possessing 1,4-bis(2-hydroxy-1,2-dihydropyridin-2-yl)butane-2,3-dione backbone. Careful analyses of the one- and two-dimensional NMR and HRESIMS spectra of the compounds secured their structural mapping, while their absolute stereochemistry was established by analyses of their ECD spectra. The production of such dimeric alkaloids with an unprecedented moiety in the culture of Fusarium sp. LY019 supports further understanding of the biosynthetic competences of the cultured marine-derived fungi. Fusaripyridines A and B selectively inhibited the growth of Candida albicans with MIC values down to 8.0 µM, while they are moderately active against S. aureus, E. coli and HeLa cells.

Role of bioactive metabolites from Acremonium camptosporum associated with the marine sponge Aplysina fulva

Acremonium camptosporum, a fungus associated with the marine sponge Aplysina fulva, was collected from the isolated mid-Atlantic Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, Brazil, and was found to produce secondary metabolites that displayed antibacterial activities. Mass spectra data obtained by UPLC-ESI-MS/MS analyses of these extracts were compared to several databases and revealed the presence of several different cytotoxic acremonidins and acremoxanthones. The close association between the sponge and the fungi with its compounds could be of strategic importance in defending both from the high predation pressure and spatial competition in the warm-water scarps of the islands.

Marine Sponge-Associated Fungi as Potential Novel Bioactive Natural Product Sources for Drug Discovery: A Review

Marine sponge-associated fungi are promising sources of structurally interesting and bioactive secondary metabolites. Great plenty of natural products have been discovered from spongeassociated fungi in recent years. Here reviewed are 571 new compounds isolated from marine fungi associated with sponges in 2010-2018. These molecules comprised eight different structural classes, including alkaloids, polyketides, terpenoids, meroterpenoids, etc. Moreover, most of these compounds demonstrated profoundly biological activities, such as antimicrobial, antiviral, cytotoxic, etc. This review systematically summarized the structural diversity, biological function, and future potential of these novel bioactive natural products for drug discovery.

Re-examination of species limits in Aspergillus section Flavipedes using advanced species delimitation methods and description of four new species

Since the last revision in 2015, the taxonomy of section Flavipedes evolved rapidly along with the availability of new species delimitation techniques. This study aims to re-evaluate the species boundaries of section Flavipedes members using modern delimitation methods applied to an extended set of strains (n = 90) collected from various environments. The analysis used DNA sequences of three house-keeping genes (benA, CaM, RPB2) and consisted of two steps: application of several single-locus (GMYC, bGMYC, PTP, bPTP) and multi-locus (STACEY) species delimitation methods to sort the isolates into putative species, which were subsequently validated using DELINEATE software that was applied for the first time in fungal taxonomy. As a result, four new species are introduced, i.e. A. alboluteus, A. alboviridis, A. inusitatus and A. lanuginosus, and A. capensis is synonymized with A. iizukae. Phenotypic analyses were performed for the new species and their relatives, and the results showed that the growth parameters at different temperatures and colonies characteristics were useful for differentiation of these taxa. The revised section harbors 18 species, most of them are known from soil. However, the most common species from the section are ecologically diverse, occurring in the indoor environment (six species), clinical samples (five species), food and feed (four species), droppings (four species) and other less common substrates/environments. Due to the occurrence of section Flavipedes species in the clinical material/hospital environment, we also evaluated the susceptibility of 67 strains to six antifungals (amphotericin B, itraconazole, posaconazole, voriconazole, isavuconazole, terbinafine) using the reference EUCAST method. These results showed some potentially clinically relevant differences in susceptibility between species. For example, MICs higher than those observed for A. fumigatus wild-type were found for both triazoles and amphotericin B for A. ardalensis, A. iizukae, and A. spelaeus whereas A. lanuginosus, A. luppiae, A. movilensis, A. neoflavipes, A. olivimuriae and A. suttoniae were comparable to or more susceptible as A. fumigatus. Finally, terbinafine was in vitro active against all species except A. alboviridis.

Isolation of a Novel Polyketide from Neodidymelliopsis sp

Fungi have become an invaluable source of bioactive natural products, with more than 5 million species of fungi spanning the globe. Fractionation of crude extract of Neodidymelliopsis sp., led to the isolation of a novel polyketide, (2Z)-cillifuranone (1) and five previously reported natural products, (2E)-cillifuranone (2), taiwapyrone (3), xylariolide D (4), pachybasin (5), and N-(5-hydroxypentyl)acetamide (6). It was discovered that (2Z)-cillifuranone (1) was particularly sensitive to ambient temperature and light resulting in isomerisation to (2E)-cillifuranone (2). Structure elucidation of all the natural products were conducted by NMR spectroscopic techniques. The antimicrobial activity of 2, 3, and 5 were evaluated against a variety of bacterial and fungal pathogens. A sodium [1-¹³C] acetate labelling study was conducted on Neodidymelliopsis sp. and confirmed that pachybasin is biosynthesised through the acetate polyketide pathway.

Marine endophytic fungi associated with Halopteris scoparia (Linnaeus) Sauvageau as producers of bioactive secondary metabolites with potential dermocosmetic application

Marine fungi and, particularly, endophytic species have been recognised as one of the most prolific sources of structurally new and diverse bioactive secondary metabolites with multiple biotechnological applications. Despite the increasing number of bioprospecting studies, very few have already evaluated the cosmeceutical potential of marine fungal compounds. Thus, this study focused on a frequent seaweed in the Portuguese coast, Halopteris scoparia, to identify the endophytic marine fungi associated with this host, and assess their ability to biosynthesise secondary metabolites with antioxidative, enzymatic inhibitory (hyaluronidase, collagenase, elastase and tyrosinase), anti-inflammatory, photoprotective, and antimicrobial (Cutibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Malassezia furfur) activities. The results revealed eight fungal taxa included in the Ascomycota, and in the most representative taxonomic classes in marine ecosystems (Eurotiomycetes, Sordariomycetes and Dothideomycetes). These fungi were reported for the first time in Portugal and in association with H. scoparia, as far as it is known. The screening analyses showed that most of these endophytic fungi were producers of compounds with relevant biological activities, though those biosynthesised by Penicillium sect. Exilicaulis and Aspergillus chevalieri proved to be the most promising ones for being further exploited by dermocosmetic industry. The chemical analysis of the crude extract from an isolate of A. chevalieri revealed the presence of two bioactive compounds, echinulin and neoechinulin A, which might explain the high antioxidant and UV photoprotective capacities exhibited by the extract. These noteworthy results emphasised the importance of screening the secondary metabolites produced by these marine endophytic fungal strains for other potential bioactivities, and the relevance of investing more efforts in understanding the ecology of halo/osmotolerant fungi.

Fungi populate deep-sea coral gardens as well as marine sediments in the Irish Atlantic Ocean

Fungi populate deep Oceans in extreme habitats characterized by high hydrostatic pressure, low temperature and absence of sunlight. Marine fungi are potential major contributors to biogeochemical events, critical for marine communities and food web equilibrium under climate change conditions and a valuable source of novel extremozymes and small molecules. Despite their ecophysiological and biotechnological relevance, fungal deep-sea biodiversity has not yet been thoroughly characterized. In this study, we describe the culturable mycobiota associated with the deepest margin of the European Western Continental Shelf: sediments sampled at the Porcupine Bank and deep-water corals and sponges sampled in the Whittard Canyon. Eighty-seven strains were isolated, belonging to 43 taxa and mainly Ascomycota. Ten species and four genera were detected for the first time in the marine environment and a possible new species of Arachnomyces was isolated from sediments. The genera Cladosporium and Penicillium were the most frequent and detected on both substrates, followed by Candida and Emericellopsis. Our results showed two different fungal communities: sediment-associated taxa which were predominantly saprotrophic and animal-associated taxa which were predominantly symbiotic. This survey supports selective fungal biodiversity in the deep North Atlantic, encouraging further mycological studies on cold water coral gardens, often overexploited marine habitats.

Chemistry, Chemotaxonomy and Biological Activity of the Latrunculid Sponges (Order Poecilosclerida, Family Latrunculiidae)

Marine sponges are exceptionally prolific sources of natural products for the discovery and development of new drugs. Until now, sponges have contributed around 30% of all natural metabolites isolated from the marine environment. Family Latrunculiidae Topsent, 1922 (class Demospongiae Sollas, 1885, order Poecilosclerida Topsent, 1928) is a small sponge family comprising seven genera. Latrunculid sponges are recognized as the major reservoirs of diverse types of pyrroloiminoquinone-type alkaloids, with a myriad of biological activities, in particular, cytotoxicity, fuelling their exploration for anticancer drug discovery. Almost 100 pyrroloiminoquinone alkaloids and their structurally related compounds have been reported from the family Latrunculiidae. The systematics of latrunculid sponges has had a complex history, however it is now well understood. The pyrroloiminoquinone alkaloids have provided important chemotaxonomic characters for this sponge family. Latrunculid sponges have been reported to contain other types of metabolites, such as peptides (callipeltins), norditerpenes and norsesterpenes (trunculins) and macrolides (latrunculins), however, the sponges containing latrunculins and trunculins have been transferred to other sponge families. This review highlights a comprehensive literature survey spanning from the first chemical investigation of a New Zealand Latrunculia sp. in 1986 until August 2020, focusing on the chemical diversity and biological activities of secondary metabolites reported from the family Latrunculiidae. The biosynthetic (microbial) origin and the taxonomic significance of pyrroloiminoquinone related alkaloids are also discussed.

Antioxidant Molecules from Marine Fungi: Methodologies and Perspectives

The marine environment represents a prosperous existing resource for bioprospecting, covering 70% of the planet earth, and hosting a huge biodiversity. Advances in the research are progressively uncovering the presence of unknown microorganisms, which have evolved unique metabolic and genetic pathways for the production of uncommon secondary metabolites. Fungi have a leading role in marine bioprospecting since they represent a prolific source of structurally diverse bioactive metabolites. Several bioactive compounds from marine fungi have already been characterized including antibiotics, anticancer, antioxidants and antivirals. Nowadays, the search for natural antioxidant molecules capable of replacing those synthetic currently used, is an aspect that is receiving significant attention. Antioxidants can inactivate reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, preventing the insurgence of several degenerative diseases including cancer, autoimmune disorders, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, they also find applications in different fields, including food preservation, healthcare and cosmetics. This review focuses on the production of antioxidants from marine fungi. We begin by proposing a survey of the available tools suitable for the evaluation of antioxidants, followed by the description of various classes of marine fungi antioxidants together with their extraction strategies. In addition, a view of the future perspectives and trends of these natural products within the "blue economy" is also presented.

Culture-Dependent Microbiome of the Ciona intestinalis Tunic: Isolation, Bioactivity Profiling and Untargeted Metabolomics

Ascidians and their associated microbiota are prolific producers of bioactive marine natural products. Recent culture-independent studies have revealed that the tunic of the solitary ascidian Cionaintestinalis (sea vase) is colonized by a diverse bacterial community, however, the biotechnological potential of this community has remained largely unexplored. In this study, we aimed at isolating the culturable microbiota associated with the tunic of C.intestinalis collected from the North and Baltic Seas, to investigate their antimicrobial and anticancer activities, and to gain first insights into their metabolite repertoire. The tunic of the sea vase was found to harbor a rich microbial community, from which 89 bacterial and 22 fungal strains were isolated. The diversity of the tunic-associated microbiota differed from that of the ambient seawater samples, but also between sampling sites. Fungi were isolated for the first time from the tunic of Ciona. The proportion of bioactive extracts was high, since 45% of the microbial extracts inhibited the growth of human pathogenic bacteria, fungi or cancer cell lines. In a subsequent bioactivity- and metabolite profiling-based approach, seven microbial extracts were prioritized for in-depth chemical investigations. Untargeted metabolomics analyses of the selected extracts by a UPLC-MS/MS-based molecular networking approach revealed a vast chemical diversity with compounds assigned to 22 natural product families, plus many metabolites that remained unidentified. This initial study indicates that bacteria and fungi associated with the tunic of C.intestinalis represent an untapped source of putatively new marine natural products with pharmacological relevance.

Antibacterial scalarane from Doriprismatica stellata nudibranchs (Gastropoda, Nudibranchia), egg ribbons, and their dietary sponge Spongia cf. agaricina (Demospongiae, Dictyoceratida)

Investigations on the biochemical relationship between Doriprismatica stellata (Chromodorididae, Doridoidea) nudibranchs, their egg ribbons, and the associated dietary sponge Spongia cf. agaricina (Demospongiae, Porifera) led to the isolation of the structurally new scalarane-type sesterterpene 12-deacetoxy-4-demethyl-11,24-diacetoxy-3,4-methylenedeoxoscalarin, with an unprecedented position of the cyclopropane ring annelated to the ring A. Unlike other scalaranes, which are most often functionalized at C-12 of ring C, it bears two acetoxy groups at C-11 and C-24 instead. The compound was present in all three samples, supporting the dietary relationship between chromodorid nudibranchs of the genus Doriprismatica and scalarane-containing dictyoceratid sponges of the Spongiidae family. The results also indicate that D. stellata passes the scalarane metabolite on to its egg ribbons, most likely for protective purposes. The scalarane showed antibacterial activity against the Gram-positive bacteria Arthrobacter crystallopoietes (DSM 20117) and Bacillus megaterium (DSM 32).

Highlighting the Crude Oil Bioremediation Potential of Marine Fungi Isolated from the Port of Oran (Algeria)

While over hundreds of terrestrial fungal genera have been shown to play important roles in the biodegradation of hydrocarbons, few studies have so far focused on the fungal bioremediation potential of petroleum in the marine environment. In this study, the culturable fungal communities occurring in the port of Oran in Algeria, considered here as a chronically-contaminated site, have been mainly analyzed in terms of species richness. A collection of 84 filamentous fungi has been established from seawater samples and then the fungi were screened for their ability to utilize and degrade crude oil. A total of 12 isolates were able to utilize crude oil as a unique carbon source, from which 4 were defined as the most promising biodegrading isolates based on a screening test using 2,6-dichlorophenol indophenol as a proxy to highlight their ability to metabolize crude oil. The biosurfactant production capability was also tested and, interestingly, the oil spreading and drop-collapse tests highlighted that the 4 most promising isolates were also those able to produce the highest quantity of biosurfactants. The results generated in this study demonstrate that the most promising fungal isolates, namely Penicillium polonicum AMF16, P. chrysogenum AMF47 and 2 isolates (AMF40 and AMF74) affiliated to P. cyclopium, appear to be interesting candidates for bioremediation of crude oil pollution in the marine environment within the frame of bioaugmentation or biostimulation processes.

Biological and Chemical Diversity of Marine Sponge-Derived Microorganisms over the Last Two Decades from 1998 to 2017

Marine sponges are well known as rich sources of biologically natural products. Growing evidence indicates that sponges harbor a wealth of microorganisms in their bodies, which are likely to be the true producers of bioactive secondary metabolites. In order to promote the study of natural product chemistry and explore the relationship between microorganisms and their sponge hosts, in this review, we give a comprehensive overview of the structures, sources, and activities of the 774 new marine natural products from sponge-derived microorganisms described over the last two decades from 1998 to 2017.

Genomic characterization of Parengyodontium americanum sp. nov

Modern genome analysis and phylogenomic methods have increased the number of fungal species, as well as enhanced appreciation of the degree of diversity within the fungal kingdom. In this context, we describe a new Parengyodontium species, P. americanum, which is phylogenetically related to the opportunistic human fungal pathogen P. album. Five unusual fungal isolates were recovered from five unique and confirmed coccidioidomycosis patients, and these isolates were subsequently submitted to detailed molecular and morphological identification procedures to determine identity. Molecular and morphological diagnostic analyses showed that the isolates belong to the Cordycipitaceae. Subsequently, three representative genomes were sequenced and annotated, and a new species, P. americanum, was identified. Using various genomic analyses, gene family expansions related to novel compounds and potential for ability to grow in diverse habitats are predicted. A general description of the genomic composition of this newly described species and comparison of genome content with Beauveria bassiana, Isaria fumosorosea and Cordyceps militaris shows a shared core genome of 6371 genes, and 148 genes that appear to be specific for P. americanum. This work provides the framework for future investigations of this interesting fungal species.

The culturable mycobiota associated with the Mediterranean sponges Aplysina cavernicola, Crambe crambe and Phorbas tenacior

Marine fungi are part of the huge and understudied biodiversity hosted in the sea. To broaden the knowledge on fungi inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea and their role in sponge holobiont, three sponges namely Aplysina cavernicola, Crambe crambe and Phorbas tenacior were collected in Villefranche sur Mer, (France) at about 25 m depth. The fungal communities associated with the sponges were isolated using different techniques to increase the numbers of fungi isolated. All fungi were identified to species level giving rise to 19, 13 and 3 species for P. tenacior, A. cavernicola and C. crambe, respectively. Of note, 35.7% and 50.0% of the species detected were either reported for the first time in the marine environment or in association with sponges. The mini-satellite analysis confirmed the uniqueness of the mycobiota of each sponge, leading to think that the sponge, with its metabolome, may shape the microbial community.

Brocaeloid D, a novel compound isolated from a wheat pathogenic fungus, Microdochium majus 99049

Microbes serve as the most important resource for drug discovery. During our screening for bioactive compounds from our natural products library, a pathogenic fungus, Microdochium majus strain 99049, from wheat was selected for further investigation. A new alkaloid named brocaeloid D (1), together with six previously characterized compounds (2–7) were identified. Compound 1 belongs to 4-oxoquinoline with C-2 reversed prenylation and a succinimide substructure. All the structures of these newly isolated compounds were determined by different means in spectroscopic experiments. The absolute configurations of 1 was further deduced from comparison of its CD spectrum with that of known compound 2. The bioactivities of these identified compounds were evaluated against several pathogenic microorganisms and cancer cell lines. Compounds 1–5 showed activity against HUH-7 human hepatoma cells with IC₅₀ values of 80 μg/mL. Compound 6 showed mild activity against HeLa cells (IC₅₀ = 51.9 μg/mL), weak anti-MTB activity (MIC = 80  μg/mL), and moderate anti-MRSA activity (MIC = 25 μg/mL), and compound 7 showed weak anti-MRSA activity (MIC = 100 μg/mL).

Marine Fungi from the Sponge Grantia compressa: Biodiversity, Chemodiversity, and Biotechnological Potential

The emergence of antibiotic resistance and viruses with high epidemic potential made unexplored marine environments an appealing target source for new metabolites. Marine fungi represent one of the most suitable sources for the discovery of new compounds. Thus, the aim of this work was (i) to isolate and identify fungi associated with the Atlantic sponge Grantia compressa; (ii) to study the fungal metabolites by applying the OSMAC approach (one strain; many compounds); (iii) to test fungal compounds for their antimicrobial activities. Twenty-one fungal strains (17 taxa) were isolated from G. compressa. The OSMAC approach revealed an astonishing metabolic diversity in the marine fungus Eurotium chevalieri MUT 2316, from which 10 compounds were extracted, isolated, and characterized. All metabolites were tested against viruses and bacteria (reference and multidrug-resistant strains). Dihydroauroglaucin completely inhibited the replication of influenza A virus; as for herpes simplex virus 1, total inhibition of replication was observed for both physcion and neoechinulin D. Six out of 10 compounds were active against Gram-positive bacteria with isodihydroauroglaucin being the most promising compound (minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) 4-64 µg/mL) with bactericidal activity. Overall, G. compressa proved to be an outstanding source of fungal diversity. Marine fungi were capable of producing different metabolites; in particular, the compounds isolated from E. chevalieri showed promising bioactivity against well-known and emerging pathogens.

Influence of OSMAC-Based Cultivation in Metabolome and Anticancer Activity of Fungi Associated with the Brown Alga Fucus vesiculosus

The fungi associated with marine algae are prolific sources of metabolites with high chemical diversity and bioactivity. In this study, we investigated culture-dependent fungal communities associated with the Baltic seaweed Fucus vesiculosus. Altogether, 55 epiphytic and endophytic fungi were isolated and identified. Twenty-six strains were selected for a small-scale One-Strain-Many-Compounds (OSMAC)-based fermentation in four media under solid and liquid culture regimes. In total, 208 fungal EtOAc extracts were tested for anticancer activity and general cytotoxicity. Ten most active strains (i.e., 80 extracts) were analyzed for their metabolome by molecular networking (MN), in-silico MS/MS fragmentation analysis (ISDB⁻UNPD), and manual dereplication. Thirty-six metabolites belonging to 25 chemical families were putatively annotated. The MN clearly distinguished the impact of culture conditions in chemical inventory and anticancer activity of the fungal extracts that was often associated with general toxicity. The bioactivity data were further mapped into MN to seek metabolites, exclusively expressed in the active extracts. This is the first report of cultivable fungi associated with the Baltic F. vesiculosus that combined an OSMAC and an integrated MN-based untargeted metabolomics approaches for efficient assessment and visualization of the impact of the culture conditions on chemical space and anticancer potential of the fungi.

Salinity and Temperature Influence Growth and Pigment Production in the Marine-Derived Fungal Strain Talaromyces albobiverticillius 30548

Marine-derived fungi that inhabit severe changing environments have gained increasing interest for their ability to produce structurally unique natural products. Fungi belonging to the Talaromyces and the close Penicillium genera are among the most promising microbes for bioactive compound production, including colored metabolites. Coupling pigment producing capability with bioactive effectiveness would be a valuable challenge in some specific fields such as dyeing, cosmeceutical, or food industries. In this sense, Talaromyces albobiverticillius 30548, a red pigment producing strain, has been isolated from the marine environment of Reunion Island, Indian Ocean. In this research, we analyzed the effect of temperatures (21⁻27 °C) and salinity levels (0⁻9%) on fungal growth and pigment production. Maximum pigment yield was obtained in non-salted media, when cultured at 27 °C after 10 days of submerged fermentation in PDB. However, maximum dry biomass production was achieved at stressed condition with 9% sea salts concentrated media at the same temperature. The results indicate that salinity of the culture media positively influences the growth of the biomass. Inversely, pigment production decreases with increase in salinity over 6%. Color coordinates of secreted pigments were expressed in CIELAB color system. The hue angles (h°) ranged from red to yellow colors. This indicated that the color distribution of fungal pigments depends on the salinity in the culture media. This study emphasizes the impact of abiotic stress (salt and temperature) on the growth and metabolome of marine-derived fungal strains.

Two new polyketides isolated from a diethyl sulphate mutant of marine-derived Penicillium purpurogenum G59

Two new polyketides, purpurofuranone (1) and purpuropyranone (2), were isolated along with the known polyketides, cillifuranone (3) and taiwapyrone (4), from a mutant BD-3n-1 derived from the diethyl sulfate (DES) mutagenesis of a marine-derived Penicillium purpurogenum G59. The structures of 1 and 2 were elucidated by spectroscopic methods especially on the basis of X-ray diffraction and calculated optical rotations data. The plausible biosynthesis of 1 - 4 was also proposed and discussed. In preliminary MTT assay, 1 - 4 showed no notable inhibitory effects on the tested four human cancer cell lines.

Marine bacteria and fungi as promising source for new antibiotics

Natural products and derivatives thereof are of considerable importance in the discovery of new pharmaceuticals, for example, for the treatment of cancer, diabetes, inflammation diseases, and infection diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, or parasites. The great biodiversity of marine microorganisms is reflected in their huge chemical diversity, which provides a rich source of biologically active compounds. An increasing interest in marine microorganisms as promising producers of new compounds with potential medical applications has raised increasing interest in the sustainable exploration of marine microbial resources for the discovery of new antibiotics, which is highlighted. The bottlenecks in the development of drugs using the large marine natural product pipeline are also discussed.

Fungal diversity of mangrove-associated sponges from New Washington, Aklan, Philippines

Sponge-associated fungi are the least explored marine fungal groups. It is only in recent years that fungal symbionts of marine sponges have received attention mainly due to the isolation of bioactive metabolites while not much attention was given to their specificity, biogeography and exact roles in marine sponges. The diversity of fungi associated with mangrove sponges (Axinella sp., Halichondria cf. panicea, Haliclona sp., Tedania sp.) collected from New Washington, Aklan, Philippines were investigated using morphological observation. A total of 110 species of sponge-associated fungi belonging to 22 genera of ascomycetes with 18 genera of asexual morphs whose sexual stage is unknown, 2 genera of basidiomycetes, 21 morphospecies of Mycelia sterilia, 1 unidentified yeast species and 11 unidentified hyphomycetes were isolated from four species of mangrove sponges. This is the first study that explored the diversity and ecology of sponge-associated fungi in mangrove habitats from the Philippines. The results of the study suggest host-preference by various fungal taxa and the development of fungi on these hosts appeared to be strongly influenced by the characteristics or nature of the immediate environment.

Diversity, host-specificity and stability of sponge-associated fungal communities of co-occurring sponges

Fungi play a critical role in a range of ecosystems; however, their interactions and functions in marine hosts, and particular sponges, is poorly understood. Here we assess the fungal community composition of three co-occurring sponges (Cymbastela concentrica, Scopalina sp., Tedania anhelans) and the surrounding seawater over two time points to help elucidate host-specificity, stability and potential core members, which may shed light into the ecological function of fungi in sponges. The results showed that ITS-amplicon-based community profiling likely provides a more realistic assessment of fungal diversity in sponges than cultivation-dependent approaches. The sponges studied here were found to contain phylogenetically diverse fungi (eight fungal classes were observed), including members of the family Togniniaceae and the genus Acrostalagmus, that have so far not been reported to be cultured from sponges. Fungal communities within any given sponge species were found to be highly variable compared to bacterial communities, and influenced in structure by the community of the surrounding seawater, especially considering temporal variation. Nevertheless, the sponge species studied here contained a few "variable/core" fungi that appeared in multiple biological replicates and were enriched in their relative abundance compared to seawater communities. These fungi were the same or highly similar to fungal species detected in sponges around the world, which suggests a prevalence of horizontal transmission where selectivity and enrichment of some fungi occur for those that can survive and/or exploit the sponge environment. Our current sparse knowledge about sponge-associated fungi thus indicate that fungal communities may perhaps not play as an important ecological role in the sponge holobiont compared to bacterial or archaeal symbionts.

The culturable mycobiota associated with three Atlantic sponges, including two new species: Thelebolus balaustiformis and T. spongiae

Covering 70 % of Earth, oceans are at the same time the most common and the environment least studied by microbiologists. Considering the large gaps in our knowledge on the presence of marine fungi in the oceans, the aim of this research was to isolate and identify the culturable fungal community within three species of sponges, namely Dysidea fragilis, Pachymatisma johnstonia and Sycon ciliatum, collected in the Atlantic Ocean and never studied for their associated mycobiota. Applying different isolation methods, incubation temperatures and media, and attempting to mimic the marine and sponge environments, were fundamental to increase the number of cultivable taxa. Fungi were identified using a polyphasic approach, by means of morpho-physiological, molecular and phylogenetic techniques. The sponges revealed an astonishing fungal diversity represented by 87 fungal taxa. Each sponge hosted a specific fungal community with more than half of the associated fungi being exclusive of each invertebrate. Several species isolated and identified in this work, already known in terrestrial environment, were first reported in marine ecosystems (21 species) and in association with sponges (49 species), including the two new species Thelebolus balaustiformis and Thelebolus spongiae, demonstrating that oceans are an untapped source of biodiversity.

Phylogenetic Analysis and Biological Evaluation of Marine Endophytic Fungi Derived from Red Sea Sponge Hyrtios erectus

Forty-four endophytic fungal isolates obtained from marine sponge, Hyrtios erectus, were evaluated and screened for their hydrolase activities. Most of the isolates were found to be prolific producers of hydrolytic enzymes. Only 11 isolates exhibited maximum cellular contents of lipids, rhamnolipids, and protein in the fungal isolates under the isolation numbers MERVA5, MERVA22, MERVA25, MERVA29, MERVA32, MERVA34, MERV36, MERVA39, MERVA42, MERVA43, and MERVA44. These isolate extracts exhibit the highest reducing activities against carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes including α-amylase, α-glucosidase, β-glucosidase, β-glucuronidase, and tyrosinase. Consequently, based on morphological and cultural criteria, as well as sequence information and phylogenetic analysis, these isolates could be identified and designated as Penicillium brevicombactum MERVA5, Arthrinium arundinis MERVA22, Diaporthe rudis MERVA25, Aspergillus versicolor MERVA29, Auxarthron alboluteum MERVA32, Dothiorella sarmentorum MERVA34, Lophiostoma sp. MERVA36, Fusarium oxysporum MERVA39, Penicillium chrysogenum MERVA42, Penicillium polonicum MERVA43, and Trichoderma harzianum MERVA44. The endophytic fungal species, D. rudis MERVA25, P. polonicum MERVA43, Lophiostoma sp. MERVA36, A. alboluteum MERVA32, T. harzianum MERVA44, F. oxysporum MERVA39, A. versicolor MERVA29, and P. chrysogenum MERVA42 extracts, showed significant hepatitis C virus (HCV) inhibition. Moreover, D. sarmentorum MERVA34, P. polonicum MERVA43, and T. harzianum MERVA44 extracts have the highest antitumor activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2).

Fungi found in Mediterranean and North Sea sponges: how specific are they?

Fungi and other eukaryotes represent one of the last frontiers of microbial diversity in the sponge holobiont. In this study we employed pyrosequencing of 18S ribosomal RNA gene amplicons containing the V7 and V8 hypervariable regions to explore the fungal diversity of seven sponge species from the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. For most sponges, fungi were present at a low relative abundance averaging 0.75% of the 18S rRNA gene reads. In total, 44 fungal OTUs (operational taxonomic units) were detected in sponges, and 28 of these OTUs were also found in seawater. Twenty-two of the sponge-associated OTUs were identified as yeasts (mainly Malasseziales), representing 84% of the fungal reads. Several OTUs were related to fungal sequences previously retrieved from other sponges, but all OTUs were also related to fungi from other biological sources, such as seawater, sediments, lakes and anaerobic digesters. Therefore our data, supported by currently available data, point in the direction of mostly accidental presence of fungi in sponges and do not support the existence of a sponge-specific fungal community.

Asperentin B, a New Inhibitor of the Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B

In the frame of studies on secondary metabolites produced by fungi from deep-sea environments we have investigated inhibitors of enzymes playing key roles in signaling cascades of biochemical pathways relevant for the treatment of diseases. Here we report on a new inhibitor of the human protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), a target in the signaling pathway of insulin. A new asperentin analog is produced by an Aspergillussydowii strain isolated from the sediment of the deep Mediterranean Sea. Asperentin B (1) contains an additional phenolic hydroxy function at C-6 and exhibits an IC₅₀ value against PTP1B of 2 μM in vitro, which is six times stronger than the positive control, suramin. Interestingly, asperentin (2) did not show any inhibition of this enzymatic activity. Asperentin B (1) is discussed as possible therapeutic agents for type 2 diabetes and sleeping sickness.

A Place to Call Home: An Analysis of the Bacterial Communities in Two Tethya rubra Samaai and Gibbons 2005 Populations in Algoa Bay, South Africa

Sponges are important sources of bioactive secondary metabolites. These compounds are frequently synthesized by bacterial symbionts, which may be recruited from the surrounding seawater or transferred to the sponge progeny by the parent. In this study, we investigated the bacterial communities associated with the sponge Tethya rubra Samaai and Gibbons 2005. Sponge specimens were collected from Evans Peak and RIY Banks reefs in Algoa Bay, South Africa and taxonomically identified by spicule analysis and molecular barcoding. Crude chemical extracts generated from individual sponges were profiled by ultraviolet high performance liquid chromatography (UV-HPLC) and subjected to bioactivity assays in mammalian cells. Next-generation sequencing analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences was used to characterize sponge-associated bacterial communities. T. rubra sponges collected from the two locations were morphologically and genetically indistinguishable. Chemical extracts from sponges collected at RIY banks showed mild inhibition of the metabolic activity of mammalian cells and their UV-HPLC profiles were distinct from those of sponges collected at Evans Peak. Similarly, the bacterial communities associated with sponges from the two locations were distinct with evidence of vertical transmission of symbionts from the sponge parent to its embryos. We conclude that these distinct bacterial communities may be responsible for the differences observed in the chemical profiles of the two Algoa Bay T. rubra Samaai and Gibbons 2005 populations.

Characterization of lignocellulolytic activities from fungi isolated from the deep-sea sponge Stelletta normani

Extreme habitats have usually been regarded as a source of microorganisms that possess robust proteins that help enable them to survive in such harsh conditions. The deep sea can be considered an extreme habitat due to low temperatures (<5°C) and high pressure, however marine sponges survive in these habitats. While bacteria derived from deep-sea marine sponges have been studied, much less information is available on fungal biodiversity associated with these sponges. Following screening of fourteen fungi isolated from the deep-sea sponge Stelletta normani sampled at a depth of 751 metres, three halotolerant strains (TS2, TS11 and TS12) were identified which displayed high CMCase and xylanase activities. Molecular based taxonomic approaches identified these strains as Cadophora sp. TS2, Emericellopsis sp. TS11 and Pseudogymnoascus sp. TS 12. These three fungi displayed psychrotolerance and halotolerant growth on CMC and xylan as sole carbon sources, with optimal growth rates at 20°C. They produced CMCase and xylanase activities, which displayed optimal temperature and pH values of between 50-70°C and pH 5-8 respectively, together with good thermostability and halotolerance. In solid-state fermentations TS2, TS11 and TS12 produced CMCases, xylanases and peroxidase/phenol oxidases when grown on corn stover and wheat straw. This is the first time that CMCase, xylanase and peroxidase/phenol oxidase activities have been reported in these three fungal genera isolated from a marine sponge. Given the biochemical characteristics of these ligninolytic enzymes it is likely that they may prove useful in future biomass conversion strategies involving lignocellulosic materials.

Biodiversity of Trichoderma Community in the Tidal Flats and Wetland of Southeastern China

To investigate the biodiversity of Trichoderma (Hypocreaceae) and their relation to sediment physical and chemical properties, we collected a total of 491 sediment samples from coastal wetlands (tidal flat and wetland) in Southeast China. Further, we applied two types of molecular approaches such as culture dependent and independent methods for identification of Trichoderma spp. A total of 254 isolates were obtained and identified to 13 species such as T. aureoviride, T. asperellum, T. harzianum, T. atroviride, T. koningiopsis, T. longibrachiatum, T. koningii. T. tawa, T. viridescens, T. virens, T. hamatum, T. viride, and T. velutinum by the culture-dependent (CD) method of these, T. tawa was newly described in China. Subsequently, the culture indepented method of 454 pyrosequencing analysis revealed a total of six species such as T. citrinoviride, T. virens, T. polysporum, T. harzianum/Hypocrea lixii and two unknown species. Notably, T. citrinoviride and T. polysporum were not found by the CD method. Therefore, this work revealed that the combination of these two methods could show the higher biodiversity of Trichoderma spp., than either of this method alone. Among the sampling sites, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, exhibited rich biodiversity and low in Fengxian. Correlation and Redundancy discriminant analysis (RDA) revealed that sediment properties of temperature, redox potential (Eh) and pH significantly influenced the biodiversity of Trichoderma spp.

Biscogniauxone, a New Isopyrrolonaphthoquinone Compound from the Fungus Biscogniauxia mediterranea Isolated from Deep-Sea Sediments

The properties and the production of new metabolites from the fungal strain LF657 isolated from the Herodotes Deep (2800 m depth) in the Mediterranean Sea are reported in this study. The new isolate was identified as Biscogniauxia mediterranea based on ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and 28S rRNA gene sequences. A new isopyrrolonaphthoquinone with inhibitory activity against glycogen synthase kinase (GSK-3β) was isolated from this fungus. This is the first report of this class of compounds from a fungus isolated from a deep-sea sediment, as well as from a Biscogniauxia species.

Biodegradation of engine oil by fungi from mangrove habitat

The pollution of land and water by petroleum compounds is a matter of growing concern necessitating the development of methodologies, including microbial biodegradation, to minimize the impending impacts. It has been extensively reported that fungi from polluted habitats have the potential to degrade pollutants, including petroleum compounds. The Red Sea is used extensively for the transport of oil and is substantially polluted, due to leaks, spills, and occasional accidents. Tidal water, floating debris, and soil sediment were collected from mangrove stands on three polluted sites along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia and forty-five fungal isolates belonging to 13 genera were recovered from these samples. The isolates were identified on the basis of a sequence analysis of the 18S rRNA gene fragment. Nine of these isolates were found to be able to grow in association with engine oil, as the sole carbon source, under in vitro conditions. These selected isolates and their consortium accumulated greater biomass, liberated more CO2, and produced higher levels of extracellular enzymes, during cultivation with engine oil as compared with the controls. These observations were authenticated by gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry (GC-MS) analysis, which indicated that many high mass compounds present in the oil before treatment either disappeared or showed diminished levels.

Marine Fungi as Producers of Benzocoumarins, a New Class of Inhibitors of Glycogen-Synthase-Kinase 3β

The glycogen-synthase-kinase 3 (GSK-3) is an important target in drug discovery. This enzyme is involved in the signaling pathways of type 2 diabetes, neurological disorders, cancer, and other diseases. Therefore, inhibitors of GSK-3 are promising drug candidates for the treatment of a broad range of diseases. Here we report pannorin (1), alternariol (2), and alternariol-9-methylether (3) to be promising inhibitors of the isoform GSK-3β showing sub-μM IC₅₀ values. The in vitro inhibition is in the range of the known highly active GSK-3β inhibitor TDZD-8. Compounds 1-3 have a highly oxygenated benzocoumarin core structure in common, which suggests that this may be a new structural feature for efficient GSK-3β inhibition.

Engyodontochones, Antibiotic Polyketides from the Marine Fungus Engyodontium album Strain LF069

Six new (2, 4-8) and two known polyketides with a basic structure of an anthraquinone-xanthone were isolated from mycelia and culture broth of the fungus Engyodontium album strain LF069. The structures and relative configurations of these compounds were established by spectroscopic means, and their absolute configurations were defined mainly by comparison of quantum chemical TDDFT calculated and experimental ECD spectra. Compounds 2 and 4-8 were given the trivial names engyodontochone A (2) and B-F (4-8). Compounds 5-8 represent the first example of a 23,28 seco-beticolin carbon skeleton. The relative and absolute configurations of two known substances JBIR-97/98 (1) and JBIR-99 (3) were determined for the first time. All isolated compounds were subjected to bioactivity assays. Compounds 1-4 exhibited inhibitory activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) that was 10-fold stronger than chloramphenicol.

Bioactive Compounds Produced by Strains of Penicillium and Talaromyces of Marine Origin

In recent years, the search for novel natural compounds with bioactive properties has received a remarkable boost in view of their possible pharmaceutical exploitation. In this respect the sea is entitled to hold a prominent place, considering the potential of the manifold animals and plants interacting in this ecological context, which becomes even greater when their associated microbes are considered for bioprospecting. This is the case particularly of fungi, which have only recently started to be considered for their fundamental contribution to the biosynthetic potential of other more valued marine organisms. Also in this regard, strains of species which were previously considered typical terrestrial fungi, such as Penicillium and Talaromyces, disclose foreground relevance. This paper offers an overview of data published over the past 25 years concerning the production and biological activities of secondary metabolites of marine strains belonging to these genera, and their relevance as prospective drugs.

Growth of marine fungi on polymeric substrates

BACKGROUND

Marine fungi are a diverse group of opportunistic and obligate organisms isolated from marine environments. These fungi are now often included in screens for novel metabolites, while less attention has been given to their production of hydrolytic enzymes. Most enzymes derived from marine microorganisms have been obtained from marine bacteria. The enzymes produced by marine fungi may have different properties than those derived from bacteria or from terrestrial fungi. Here we assess the growth of six filamentous marine fungi on a wide range of polymeric substrates as an indication of their general capacity to produce hydrolytic enzymes.

RESULTS

Calcarisporium sp. KF525, Tritirachium sp. LF562, Bartalinia robillardoides LF550, Penicillium pinophilum LF458, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis LF580 and Pestalotiopsis sp. KF079 all grew on both casein and gelatin as N-source, indicating secretion of proteases. All species also grew on starch, laminarin, xylan, pectin and oil, indicating production of amylases, glucanases, xylanases, pectinases and lipases. Growth on cellulose occurred but was weaker than on xylan. All strains also grew to some extent on sulphated arabinogalactan, although only LF562 could utilise arabinose. Four strains grew on the sulphated ulvans, whereas only KF525 grew on agar or carrageenan. KF525 and LF562 showed limited growth on alginate. Although fucose was used as carbon source by several species, fucoidan did not support biomass production.

CONCLUSIONS

Marine fungi could be excellent sources of a wide range of hydrolytic enzymes, including those able to hydrolyse various seaweed polymers. Although the native hosts may secrete only small amounts of these enzymes, the genes may provide a rich source of novel enzymes.

Natural Products from Marine Fungi--Still an Underrepresented Resource

Marine fungi represent a huge potential for new natural products and an increased number of new metabolites have become known over the past years, while much of the hidden potential still needs to be uncovered. Representative examples of biodiversity studies of marine fungi and of natural products from a diverse selection of marine fungi from the author's lab are highlighting important aspects of this research. If one considers the huge phylogenetic diversity of marine fungi and their almost ubiquitous distribution, and realizes that most of the published work on secondary metabolites of marine fungi has focused on just a few genera, strictly speaking Penicillium, Aspergillus and maybe also Fusarium and Cladosporium, the diversity of marine fungi is not adequately represented in investigations on their secondary metabolites and the less studied species deserve special attention. In addition to results on recently discovered new secondary metabolites of Penicillium species, the diversity of fungi in selected marine habitats is highlighted and examples of groups of secondary metabolites produced by representatives of a variety of different genera and their bioactivities are presented. Special focus is given to the production of groups of derivatives of metabolites by the fungi and to significant differences in biological activities due to small structural changes.

Marine natural products sourced from marine-derived Penicillium fungi

Marine micro-organisms have been proven to be a major source of marine natural products (MNPs) in recent years, in which filamentous fungi are a vital source of bioactive natural products for their large metagenomes and more complex genetic backgrounds. This review highlights the 390 new MNPs from marine-derived Penicillium fungi during 1991 to 2014. These new MNPs are categorized based on the environment sources of the fungal hosts and their bioactivities are summarized.

Penicillium chrysogenum DSOA associated with marine sponge (Tedania anhelans) exhibit antimycobacterial activity

A strain of Penicillium chrysogenum was isolated from Tedania anhelans (marine sponge) collected from Indian Ocean (8°22'30″N latitude and 76°59'16″ longitude) and deposited in culture collection centers. The strain subjected to different culture conditions for production of extrolites were extracted using ethyl acetate and chloroform. When both extracts were subjected for antibacterial activity, latter had high activity. Minimum inhibitory concentration of chloroform extract ranged from 31.25-1000 μg/mL in tested microbes such as, Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra, Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium vaccae, Staphylococcus aureus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Vibrio cholerae. No cytotoxicity was observed in Vero cell line up to 399.10 μg/mL. Antibacterial activity previously reported by Parameswaran et al. in 1997 from ethyl acetate extract of T. anhelans might be due to the diketopiperazines, Cyclo-(L-Pro-L-Phe) and Cyclo-(L-Leu-L-Pro) produced by the associated fungi-P. chrysogenum DSOA. It is producing a metabolites having antimycobacterial activity, a first report.

Comparison of 10,11-Dehydrocurvularin Polyketide Synthases from Alternaria cinerariae and Aspergillus terreus Highlights Key Structural Motifs

Iterative type I polyketide synthases (PKSs) from fungi are multifunctional enzymes that use their active sites repeatedly in a highly ordered sequence to assemble complex natural products. A phytotoxic macrolide with anticancer properties, 10,11-dehydrocurvularin (DHC), is produced by cooperation of a highly reducing (HR) iterative PKS and a non-reducing (NR) iterative PKS. We have identified the DHC gene cluster in Alternaria cinerariae, heterologously expressed the active HR PKS (Dhc3) and NR PKS (Dhc5) in yeast, and compared them to corresponding proteins that make DHC in Aspergillus terreus. Phylogenetic analysis and homology modeling of these enzymes identified variable surfaces and conserved motifs that are implicated in product formation.

De Novo Assembly and Genome Analyses of the Marine-Derived Scopulariopsis brevicaulis Strain LF580 Unravels Life-Style Traits and Anticancerous Scopularide Biosynthetic Gene Cluster

The marine-derived Scopulariopsis brevicaulis strain LF580 produces scopularides A and B, which have anticancerous properties. We carried out genome sequencing using three next-generation DNA sequencing methods. De novo hybrid assembly yielded 621 scaffolds with a total size of 32.2 Mb and 16298 putative gene models. We identified a large non-ribosomal peptide synthetase gene (nrps1) and supporting pks2 gene in the same biosynthetic gene cluster. This cluster and the genes within the cluster are functionally active as confirmed by RNA-Seq. Characterization of carbohydrate-active enzymes and major facilitator superfamily (MFS)-type transporters lead to postulate S. brevicaulis originated from a soil fungus, which came into contact with the marine sponge Tethya aurantium. This marine sponge seems to provide shelter to this fungus and micro-environment suitable for its survival in the ocean. This study also builds the platform for further investigations of the role of life-style and secondary metabolites from S. brevicaulis.