Xanthine Oxidase Inhibitory Potential, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities of Cordyceps militaris (L.) Link Fruiting Body

Genotoxicity, acute and sub-acute toxicity profiles of methanolic Cordyceps militaris (L.) Fr. extract in Swiss Albino Mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cordyceps militaris, a traditional medicinal fungus, parasitizes the intestines of lepidopteron pupae or larvae, predominantly during the winter, and undergoes fruiting in the summer or autumn. Compounds extracted from C. militaris have demonstrated a broad spectrum of pharmacological effects, including antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-metastatic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anti-diabetic, and various others.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Herein, our study aimed at elucidating the acute, sub-acute toxicity, and genotoxicity profiles of C. militaris methanolic extract following oral administration in Swiss albino mice, representing the inaugural comprehensive exploration of the toxicological and safety profiles of C. militaris.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Prior studies have predominantly focused on its biological activities rather than its toxicity. Acute oral toxicity study was conducted at 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/Kg B.W. doses of C. militaris over a 14-day period. For sub-acute toxicity study, three groups of mice were administered 100, 300, and 600 mg/Kg B.W. of C. militaris extract for 28 consecutive days; one group served as a control. Mice were monitored for their body weight and behavioural changes once daily. Hematological, serum biochemical, histopathological, histomorphometric, seminal parameters, and mutagenic investigations were performed post-treatment period.

RESULTS

Acute oral toxicity study at 2000 mg/Kg revealed no signs of toxicity, with an LD50 value surpassing 2000 mg/Kg. No occurrences of mortality observed, and no significant changes were noted in body weight, organ weight, or behaviour. Hematological analysis illustrated a marked upsurge in RBC, Hb, HCT, PLT, MPV, and PCT, alongside minor variations in differential leucocyte count post 28-day treatment. Liver enzyme tests indicated slight elevation in ALP, while renal enzyme tests showed alterations in CRE and BUN levels. Genotoxicity profile and histopathological assessments of the liver, spleen, testis, and ovary manifested no remarkable irregularities, except for mild renal toxicity. Seminal parameters including sperm concentration, motility and testosterone levels demonstrated a noteworthy increase.

CONCLUSIONS

The study sheds light on the potential risks and safety considerations associated with C. militaris-based medicinal products. These findings establish a foundation for further investigations and the refinement of dosage optimization in the application of C. militaris, with the aim of mitigating any potential adverse effects.

A novel complementary pathway of cordycepin biosynthesis in Cordyceps militaris

We determined whether there exists a complementary pathway of cordycepin biosynthesis in wild-type Cordyceps militaris, high-cordycepin-producing strain C. militaris GYS60, and low-cordycepin-producing strain C. militaris GYS80. Differentially expressed genes were identified from the transcriptomes of the three strains. Compared with C. militaris, in GYS60 and GYS80, we identified 145 and 470 upregulated and 96 and 594 downregulated genes. Compared with GYS80, in GYS60, we identified 306 upregulated and 207 downregulated genes. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that upregulated genes were mostly involved in detoxification, antioxidant, and molecular transducer in GYS60. By Clusters of Orthologous Groups of Proteins and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses, eight genes were significantly upregulated: five genes related to purine metabolism, one to ATP production, one to secondary metabolite transport, and one to RNA degradation. In GYS60, cordycepin was significantly increased by upregulation of ATP production, which promoted 3',5'-cyclic AMP production. Cyclic AMP accelerated 3'-AMP accumulation, and cordycepin continued to be synthesized and exported. We verified the novel complementary pathway by adding the precursor adenosine and analyzing the expression of four key genes involved in the main pathway of cordycepin biosynthesis. Adenosine addition increased cordycepin production by 51.2% and 10.1%, respectively, in C. militaris and GYS60. Four genes in the main pathway in GYS60 were not upregulated.

Exploring the Phytochemical Composition and the Bioactive Properties of Malbec and Torrontés Wine Pomaces from the Calchaquíes Valleys (Argentina) for Their Sustainable Exploitation

Hydroalcoholic extracts from Malbec and Torrontés wine pomaces (Vitis vinifera L.) originating from the high-altitude vineyards of Argentina's Calchaquí Valleys were characterized. Total phenolics, hydroxycinnamic acids, orthodiphenols, anthocyanins, non-flavonoid phenolics, total flavonoids, flavones/flavonols, flavanones/dihydroflavonols, and tannins were quantified through spectrophotometric methods, with the Malbec extract exhibiting higher concentrations in most of phytochemical groups when compared to Torrontés. HPLC-DAD identified more than 30 phenolic compounds in both extracts. Malbec displayed superior antiradical activity (ABTS cation, nitric oxide, and superoxide anion radicals), reduction power (iron, copper, and phosphomolybdenum), hypochlorite scavenging, and iron chelating ability compared to Torrontés. The cytotoxicity assessments revealed that Torrontés affected the viability of HT29-MTX and Caco-2 colon cancer cells by 70% and 50%, respectively, at the highest tested concentration (1 mg/mL). At the same time, both extracts did not demonstrate acute toxicity in Artemia salina or in red blood cell assays at 500 µg/mL. Both extracts inhibited the lipoxygenase enzyme (IC50: 154.7 and 784.7 µg/mL for Malbec and Torrontés), with Malbec also reducing the tyrosinase activity (IC50: 89.9 µg/mL), and neither inhibited the xanthine oxidase. The substantial phenolic content and diverse biological activities in the Calchaquí Valleys' pomaces underline their potentialities to be valorized for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries.

Comparative Assessment of In Vitro Xanthine Oxidase and α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activities of Cultured Cambial Meristematic Cells, Adventitious Roots, and Field-Cultivated Ginseng

Panax ginseng, a traditional Chinese medicine with a history spanning thousands of years, faces overexploitation and challenges related to extended growth periods. Tissue-cultured adventitious roots and stem cells are alternatives to wild and field-cultivated ginseng. In this study, we assessed the in vitro xanthine oxidase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of saponin extracts among cultured cambial meristematic cells (CMC), adventitious ginseng roots (AGR), and field-cultivated ginseng roots (CGR). The xanthine oxidase (XO) and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities were determined by uric acid estimation and the p-NPG method, respectively. Spectrophotometry and the Folin-Ciocalteu, aluminum nitrate, and Bradford methods were employed to ascertain the total saponins and phenolic, flavonoid, and protein contents. The calculated IC50 values for total saponin extracts against XO and α-glucosidase were 0.665, 0.844, and >1.6 mg/mL and 0.332, 0.745, and 0.042 mg/mL for AGR, CMC, CGR, respectively. Comparing the total saponin, crude protein, and total phenolic contents revealed that AGR > CMC > CGR. To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first report on the in vitro comparison of xanthine oxidase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities among AGR, CMC, and CGR. The findings offer valuable insights into the development of hypoglycemic and antihyperuricemic medicinal, nutraceutical, and functional products utilizing AGR and CMC.

Integrated Comparative Transcriptome and Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis Provide Valuable Insights into the Mechanisms of Pinhead Initiation in Chinese Caterpillar Mushroom Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ascomycota)

The initiation and formation of the "pinhead" is the key node in growth process of Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Chinese Cordyceps). The research on the mechanism of changes in this growth stage is the basis for realizing the industrialization of its artificial cultivation. Clarifying the mechanisms of pinhead initiation is essential for its further application. Here, we performed a comprehensive transcriptome analysis of pinhead initiation process in O. sinensis. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed remarkable variation in gene expression and enriched pathways at different pinhead initiation stages. Gene co-expression network analysis by WGCNA identified 4 modules highly relevant to different pinhead initiation stages, and 23 hub genes. The biological function analysis and hub gene annotation of these identified modules demonstrated that transmembrane transport and nucleotide excision repair were the topmost enriched in pre-pinhead initiation stage, carbohydrate metabolism and protein glycosylation were specially enriched in pinhead initiation stage, nucleotide binding and DNA metabolic process were over-represented after pinhead stage. These key regulators are mainly involved in carbohydrate metabolism, synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids. This work excavated the candidate pathways and hub genes related to the pinhead initiation stage, which will serve as a reference for realizing the industrialization of artificial cultivation in O. sinensis.

A Review of Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals for the Management of Gout

Gout, characterized by elevated uric acid levels, is a common inflammatory joint disease associated with pain, joint swelling, and bone erosion. Existing treatments for gout often result in undesirable side effects, highlighting the need for new, safe, and cost-effective anti-gout drugs. Natural products, including medicinal plants and phytochemicals, have gained attention as potential sources of anti-gout compounds. In this review, we examined articles from 2000 to 2020 using PubMed and Google Scholar, focusing on the effectiveness of medicinal plants and phyto-chemicals in managing gout. Our findings identified 14 plants and nine phytochemicals with anti-gout properties. Notably, Teucrium polium, Prunus avium, Smilax riparia, Rhus coriaria, Foenic-ulum vulgare, Allium cepa, Camellia japonica, and Helianthus annuus exhibited the highest xa-thine oxidase inhibitory activity, attributed to their unique natural bioactive compounds such as phenolics, tannins, coumarins, terpenoids, and alkaloids. Herbal plants and their phytochemicals have demonstrated promising effects in reducing serum urate and inhibiting xanthine. This review aims to report recent studies on plants/phytochemicals derived from herbs beneficial in gout and their different mechanisms.

Isolation and purification of potential weed inhibitors from Mimosa pigra L

The diversity in structure and herbicidal properties detected in natural phytotoxic compounds could bring about advantages for development bio-herbicides. The present study was carried out search for potential weed inhibitors from the parts of Mimosa pigra L. The ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract of leaf of M. pigra showed inhibitory activity during the time that Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyardgrass) germinates and grows, which is greater than that of other extracts. From this active extract, potent growth inhibitors were isolated and identified by column chromatography (CC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H and ¹³C NMR). The six compounds were purified in this study namely: lupeol (C1, 13.2 mg), stigmastane-3,6-dione (C2, 14.7 mg), quercetin (C3, 20.2 mg), chrysoeriol (C4, 28 mg), methyl gallate (C5, 21.5 mg) and daucosterol (C6, 16.0 mg). The C2 (quercetin) compound completely inhibited the emergency, shoot height and root length of E. crus-galli at 1 mg/mL concentration (IC₅₀ shoot height = 0.56 mg/mL). This was also the first study to report the isolation and allelopathic activity of lupeol, chrysoeriol and daucosterol from M. pigra leaf. Findings of this study highlighted that quercetin from M. pigra may become bio-herbicide to control barnyard grass and other grass weeds for the development of safe agriculture.

In Vitro Inhibition of Xanthine Oxidase Purified from Arthritis Serum Patients by Nanocurcumin and Artemisinin Active Compounds

Curcumin and artemisinin are commonly used in traditional East Asian medicine. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of these active compounds on xanthine oxidase (XO) using allopurinol as a control. XO was purified from the serum of arthritis patients through ammonium sulfate precipitation (65%) and ion exchange chromatography on diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-cellulose. The specific activity of the purified enzyme was 32.5 U/mg protein, resulting in a 7-fold purification with a yield of 66.8%. Molecular docking analysis revealed that curcumin had the strongest interaction energy with XO, with a binding energy of -9.28 kcal/mol. The amino acid residues Thr1077, Gln762, Phe914, Ala1078, Val1011, Glu1194, and Ala1079 were located closer to the binding site of curcumin than artemisinin, which had a binding energy of -7.2 kcal/mol. In vitro inhibition assays were performed using nanocurcumin and artemisinin at concentrations of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 µg/mL. Curcumin inhibited enzyme activity by 67-91%, while artemisinin had a lower inhibition ratio, which ranged from 40-70% compared to allopurinol as a control.

DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity of New Phenolics from the Fermentation Broth of Mushroom Morehella importuna

In recent years, wild morel mushroom species have begun to be widely cultivated in China due to their high edible and medicinal values. To parse the medicinal ingredients, we employed the technique of liquid-submerged fermentation to investigate the secondary metabolites of Morehella importuna. Two new natural isobenzofuranone derivatives (1-2) and one new orsellinaldehyde derivative (3), together with seven known compounds, including one o-orsellinaldehyde (4), phenylacetic acid (5), benzoic acid (6), 4-hydroxy-phenylacetic acid (7), 3,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (8), N,N'-pentane-1,5-diyldiacetamide (9), and 1H-pyrrole-2-carboxylic acid (10), were obtained from the fermented broth of M. importuna. Their structures were determined according to the data of NMR, HR Q-TOF MS, IR, UV, optical activity, and single-crystal X-ray crystallography. TLC-bioautography displayed that these compounds possess significant antioxidant activity with the half DPPH free radical scavenging concentration of 1.79 (1), 4.10 (2), 4.28 (4), 2.45 (5), 4.40 (7), 1.73 (8), and 6.00 (10) mM. The experimental results would shed light on the medicinal value of M. importuna for its abundant antioxidants.

Efficacy of Green Extracting Solvents on Antioxidant, Xanthine Oxidase, and Plant Inhibitory Potentials of Solid-Based Residues (SBRs) of Cordyceps militaris

Solid-based residues (SBRs) of Cordyceps militaris are often considered as waste after the cultivation of the fruiting body. To demonstrate the value of this by-product, different ratios of two favorable green solvents (EtOH and water) were employed to optimize the yields of cordycepin (Cor) and adenosine (Ado) and investigate relevant activities of plant growth inhibition (allelopathy), antioxidants, and xanthine oxidase. The SBR extracts of 60% EtOH-40% water (W4) and 40% EtOH-60% water (W6) exhibited the highest antioxidant activity as well as yielded the optimum content of Cor and Ado. The W4 and Wt (hot water) exhibited maximum inhibitory effects on the growth of Raphanus sativus (radish), Lactuca sativa (lettuce) and two noxious weeds, Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass) and Bidens pilosa (beggarticks). Furthermore, GC-MS scan analysis revealed the presence of 14 major compounds in the SBRs. W4 is the best solvent to optimize yields of Cor and Ado, as well as having the strongest levels of antioxidant activity, xanthine oxidase, and growth-inhibitory activity. This study reveals that SBRs are a potential source of medicinal and agricultural utilization.

Cordyceps mushroom with increased cordycepin content by the cultivation on edible insects

Cordycepin is the major constituent of Cordyceps mushroom (or Cordyceps militaris) with therapeutic potential. Insects are the direct sources of nutrients for Cordyceps in nature. Therefore, optimized condition of Cordyceps cultivation for efficient cordycepin production was explored using six edible insects as substrates. The highest yield of cordycepin was produced by the cultivation on Allomyrina dichotoma and was 34 times that on Bombyx mori pupae. Among insect components, fat content was found to be important for cordycepin production. Especially, a positive correlation was deduced between oleic acid content and cordycepin production. The transcriptional levels of cns1 and cns2, genes involved in cordycepin biosynthesis, were higher in Cordyceps grown on A. dichotoma than on other insects tested. The addition of oleic acid to the substrates increased cordycepin production together with the transcriptional levels of cns1 and cns2. Therefore, Cordyceps with high content of cordycepin can be secured by the cultivation on insects.

α-Amyrin and β-Amyrin Isolated from Celastrus hindsii Leaves and Their Antioxidant, Anti-Xanthine Oxidase, and Anti-Tyrosinase Potentials

Celastrus hindsii is a popular medicinal plant in Vietnam and Southeast Asian countries as well as in South America. In this study, an amount of 12.05 g of an α-amyrin and β-amyrin mixture was isolated from C. hindsii (10.75 g/kg dry weight) by column chromatography applying different solvent systems to obtain maximum efficiency. α-Amyrin and β-amyrin were then confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The antioxidant activities of the α-amyrin and β-amyrin mixture were determined via 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,20-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assays with IC₅₀ of 125.55 and 155.28 µg/mL, respectively. The mixture exhibited a high potential for preventing gout by inhibiting a relevant key enzyme, xanthine oxidase (XO) (IC₅₀ = 258.22 µg/mL). Additionally, an important enzyme in skin hyperpigmentation, tyrosinase, was suppressed by the α-amyrin and β-amyrin mixture (IC₅₀ = 178.85 µg/mL). This study showed that C. hindsii is an abundant source for the isolation of α-amyrin and β-amyrin. Furthermore, this was the first study indicating that α-amyrin and β-amyrin mixture are promising in future therapies for gout and skin hyperpigmentation.

Prospects for Discovering the Secondary Metabolites of Cordyceps Sensu Lato by the Integrated Strategy

BACKGROUND

Some species of Cordyceps sensu lato are famous Chinese herbs with significant biological activities, often used as edible food and traditional medicine in China. Cordyceps represents the largest entomopathogenic group of fungi, including 40 genera and 1339 species in three families and incertae sedis of Hypocreales.

OBJECTIVE

Most of the Cordyceps-derivatives have been approved clinically for the treatment of various diseases such as diabetes, cancers, inflammation, cardiovascular, renal and neurological disorders and are used worldwide as supplements and herbal drugs, but there is still need for highly efficient Cordyceps-derived drugs for fatal diseases with approval of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

METHODS

Computer-aided drug design concepts could improve the discovery of putative Cordyceps- derived medicine within less time and low budget. The integration of computer-aided drug design methods with experimental validation has contributed to the successful discovery of novel drugs.

RESULTS

This review focused on modern taxonomy, active metabolites, and modern drug design techniques that could accelerate conventional drug design and discovery of Cordyceps s. l. Successful application of computer-aided drug design methods in Cordyceps research has been discussed.

CONCLUSION

It has been concluded that computer-aided drug design techniques could influence the multiple target-focused drug design, because each metabolite of Cordyceps has shown significant activities for the various diseases with very few or no side effects.

Cordycepin Isolated from Cordyceps militaris: Its Newly Discovered Herbicidal Property and Potential Plant-Based Novel Alternative to Glyphosate

There is currently much interest in finding new phytochemicals among plants and fungi as nature-based alternatives to replace problematic herbicides such as glyphosate, which are preferentially used in agricultural production n. We discovered striking herbicidal potency in Cordyceps militaris (L.) and identified cordycepin as its principal plant growth inhibitor. Cordycepin obtained as an ethyl acetate extract was subjected to column chromatography and evaluated for its bioassay-guided phytotoxic capacity against Raphanus sativus (radish), showing a maximum inhibition on germination and growth of radish (IC50 = 0.052-0.078 mg/mL). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) (m/z: 251.2) and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) ([M + Na]+ m/z: 274.1; [M + H]+ m/z: 252.1) analyses confirmed cordycepin as the major component of the tested column fraction (55.38%). At 0.04 mg/mL, cordycepin showed 3.8-5.9- and 3.3-3.7-fold greater inhibition of the germination and growth of radish than benzoic acid (BA) and glyphosate, respectively. Compared with BA, isolated cordycepin reduced plant chlorophyll and carotenoid contents (2.0-9.5 -fold), while proline, total phenolic and total flavonoid contents were increased 1.2-1.8-fold. Finally, cordycepin promoted electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde accumulation in radish aerial parts. Thus, cordycepin successfully isolated from Cordyceps militaris is a highly potent plant growth inhibitor with pending worldwide patent and may become a potential plant-based novel alternative to the disputed glyphosate.

Biological Potential and Medical Use of Secondary Metabolites

This Medicines special issue focuses on the great potential of secondary metabolites for therapeutic applications. The special issue contains 16 articles reporting relevant experimental results and overviews of bioactive secondary metabolites. Their biological effects and new methodologies that improve the lead compounds’ synthesis were also discussed. We would like to thank all 83 authors, from all over the world, for their valuable contributions to this special issue.