Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Current Findings, Challenges, and Future Applications

Extracellular vesicles from the microalga Tetraselmis chuii are biocompatible and exhibit unique bone tropism along with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed bio-nanoparticles secreted by cells and naturally evolved to transport various bioactive molecules between cells and even organisms. These cellular objects are considered one of the most promising bio-nanovehicles for the delivery of native and exogenous molecular cargo. However, many challenges with state-of-the-art EV-based candidates as drug carriers still exist, including issues with scalability, batch-to-batch reproducibility, and cost-sustainability of the final therapeutic formulation. Microalgal extracellular vesicles, which we named nanoalgosomes, are naturally released by various microalgal species. Here, we evaluate the innate biological properties of nanoalgosomes derived from cultures of the marine microalgae Tetraselmis chuii, using an optimized manufacturing protocol. Our investigation of nanoalgosome biocompatibility in preclinical models includes toxicological analyses, using the invertebrate model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, hematological and immunological evaluations ex vivo and in mice. We evaluate nanoalgosome cellular uptake mechanisms in C. elegans at cellular and subcellular levels, and study their biodistribution in mice with accurate space-time resolution. Further examination highlights the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory bioactivities of nanoalgosomes. This holistic approach to nanoalgosome functional characterization demonstrates that they are biocompatible and innate bioactive effectors with unique bone tropism. These findings suggest that nanoalgosomes have significant potential for future therapeutic applications.

Unveiling the potential: Extracellular vesicles from plant cell suspension cultures as a promising source

Extracellular vesicles are secreted by all eukaryotic cells and they have an important role in intercellular signaling. Plant extracellular vesicles (PEVs) are a novel area of research that has gained attention due to their potential implications in biomolecule transport and therapeutic applications. PEVs are lipid bilayer-enclosed structures that contain a diverse cargo of biomolecules such as proteins and lipids. Moreover, it is known that PEVs have a noticeable therapeutic potential for various conditions such as inflammation and oxidative stress. However, there are critical problems such as removing the endosomes and plant-derived biomolecules that decrease the standardization and therapeutic efficacy of PEVs. In our study, the aim was to characterize plant cell suspension-derived extracellular vesicles (PCSEVs) obtained from two different plant cell suspension cultures: Stevia rebaudiana and Vaccaria hispanica. These vesicles were isolated using ultrafiltration and characterized with nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The molecular composition of PCSEVs was profiled and the cellular uptake assay was performed. Our results demonstrated that PCSEVs have a spherical shape, less than 200 nm. In the fatty acid analysis, the primary components in PCSEVs were palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and cis-vaccenic acid. The protein content of Stevia rebaudiana-derived EVs (SDEVs) was largely associated with proteins involved in extracellular structures and functions. Conversely, Vaccaria hispanica-derived EVs (HDEVs) displayed a higher presence of cytosolic proteins. These findings contribute to the understanding of PCSEVs and open up potential avenues in extracellular vesicle research, pointing to promising prospects for future innovations in various fields.

Macromolecules with predominant β-pleated sheet proteins in extracellular vesicles released from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens induce DNA damage-mediated apoptosis in HCT116 colon cancer cells

Plant-derived bioactive macromolecules (i.e., proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) were prepared as extracellular vesicles (EVs). Plant-derived EVs are gaining pharmaceutical research interest because of their bioactive components and delivery properties. The spherical nanosized EVs derived from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens previously showed antiproliferative activity in HCT116 colon cancer cells from macromolecular compositions (predominantly proteins). To understand the mechanism of action, the biological activity studies, i.e., antiproliferation, cellular biochemical changes, DNA conformational changes, DNA damage, apoptotic nuclear morphological changes, apoptosis induction, and apoptotic pathways, were determined by neutral red uptake assay, synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, comet assay, 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, flow cytometry, and caspase activity assay, respectively. EVs inhibited HCT116 cell growth in concentration- and time-dependent manners, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration of 675.4 ± 33.8 μg/ml at 48 h and a selectivity index of 1.5 ± 0.076. HCT116 treated with EVs mainly changed the cellular biochemical compositions in the nucleic acids and carbohydrates region. The DNA damage caused no changes in DNA conformation. The apoptotic nuclear morphological changes were associated with the increased apoptotic cell population. The apoptotic cell death was induced by both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. EVs have potential as antiproliferative bioparticles.

Participation of miR165a in the Phytochrome Signal Transduction in Maize (Zea mays L.) Leaves under Changing Light Conditions

The involvement of the microRNA miR165a in the light-dependent mechanisms of regulation of target genes in maize (Zea mays) has been studied. The light-induced change in the content of free miR165a was associated with its binding by the AGO10 protein and not with a change in the rate of its synthesis from the precursor. The use of knockout Arabidopsis plants for the phytochrome A and B genes demonstrated that the presence of an active form of phytochrome B causes an increase in the level of the RNA-induced silencing miR165a complex, which triggers the degradation of target mRNAs. The two fractions of vesicles from maize leaves, P40 and P100 that bind miR165a, were isolated by ultracentrifugation. The P40 fraction consisted of larger vesicles of the size >0.170 µm, while the P100 fraction vesicles were <0.147 µm. Based on the quantitative PCR data, the predominant location of miR165a on the surface of extracellular vesicles of both fractions was established. The formation of the active form of phytochrome upon the irradiation of maize plants with red light led to a redistribution of miR165a, resulting in an increase in its proportion inside P40 vesicles and a decrease in P100 vesicles.

Research status and challenges of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been an increasing number of related studies on exosomes. Most studies have focused on exosomes derived from mammals, confirming the important role that exosomes play in cell communication. Plants, as a natural ingredient, plant-derived exosomes have been confirmed to have similar structures and functions to mammalian-derived exosomes. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are lipid bilayer membrane nanovesicles containing bioactive constituents such as miRNA, mRNA, protein, and lipids obtained from plant cells, that can participate in intercellular communication and mediate transboundary communication, have high bioavailability and low immunogenicity, are relatively safe, and have been shown to play an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis and preventing, and treating a variety of diseases. In this review, we describe the biogenesis, isolation and purification methods, structural composition, stability, safety, function of PELNs and challenges. The functions of PELNs in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor and drug delivery are mainly described, and the status of research on exosome nanoparticles of Chinese herbal medicines is outlined. Overall, we summarized the importance of PELNs and the latest research results in this field and provided a theoretical basis for the future research and clinical application of PELNs.

Unveiling the Potential of Extracellular Vesicles as Biomarkers and Therapeutic Nanotools for Gastrointestinal Diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), acting as inherent nanocarriers adept at transporting a range of different biological molecules such as proteins, lipids, and genetic material, exhibit diverse functions within the gastroenteric tract. In states of normal health, they participate in the upkeep of systemic and organ homeostasis. Conversely, in pathological conditions, they significantly contribute to the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal diseases (GIDs). Isolating EVs from patients' biofluids facilitates the discovery of new biomarkers that have the potential to offer a rapid, cost-effective, and non-invasive method for diagnosing and prognosing specific GIDs. Furthermore, EVs demonstrate considerable therapeutic potential as naturally targeted physiological carriers for the intercellular delivery of therapeutic cargo molecules or as nanoscale tools engineered specifically to regulate physio-pathological conditions or disease progression. Their attributes including safety, high permeability, stability, biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and homing/tropism capabilities contribute to their promising clinical therapeutic applications. This review will delve into various examples of EVs serving as biomarkers or nanocarriers for therapeutic cargo in the context of GIDs, highlighting their clinical potential for both functional and structural gastrointestinal conditions. The versatile and advantageous properties of EVs position them as promising candidates for innovative therapeutic strategies in advancing personalized medicine approaches tailored to the gastroenteric tract, addressing both functional and structural GIDs.

Bioactive compounds and biological functions of medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny lipid bilayer-enclosed membrane particles released from a variety of cell types into the surrounding environment. These EVs have massive participated in cell-to-cell communication and interspecies communication. In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) and "exosome-like" EVs populations found in distinct plants have attracted widespread attention. Especially, research on medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles (MPDEVs) are increasing, which are considered a kind of promising natural compound. This review summarizes current knowledge on MPDEVs in terms of bioactive compounds, including small RNA, protein, lipid, and metabolite, have been found on the surface and/or in the lumen of MPDEVs. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that MPDEVs exert broad biomedical functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, modulate microbiota, etc. MPDEVs may be a better substitute than animal-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) because of safety and biocompatibility in the future.

Therapeutic potential and pharmacological significance of extracellular vesicles derived from traditional medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are the primary sources for the discovery of novel medicines and the basis of ethnopharmacological research. While existing studies mainly focus on the chemical compounds, there is little research about the functions of other contents in medicinal plants. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are functionally active, nanoscale, membrane-bound vesicles secreted by almost all eukaryotic cells. Intriguingly, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) also have been implicated to play an important role in therapeutic application. PDEVs were reported to have physical and chemical properties similar to mammalian EVs, which are rich in lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and pharmacologically active compounds. Besides these properties, PDEVs also exhibit unique advantages, especially intrinsic bioactivity, high stability, and easy absorption. PDEVs were found to be transferred into recipient cells and significantly affect their biological process involved in many diseases, such as inflammation and tumors. PDEVs also could offer unique morphological and compositional characteristics as natural nanocarriers by innately shuttling bioactive lipids, RNA, proteins, and other pharmacologically active substances. In addition, PDEVs could effectively encapsulate hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals, remain stable, and cross stringent biological barriers. Thus, this study focuses on the pharmacological action and mechanisms of PDEVs in therapeutic applications. We also systemically deal with facets of PDEVs, ranging from their isolation to composition, biological functions, and biotherapeutic roles. Efforts are also made to elucidate recent advances in re-engineering PDEVs applied as stable, effective, and non-immunogenic therapeutic applications to meet the ever-stringent demands. Considering its unique advantages, these studies not only provide relevant scientific evidence on therapeutic applications but could also replenish and inherit precious cultural heritage.

Acetylcholine (ACh) enhances Cd tolerance through transporting ACh in vesicles and modifying Cd absorption in duckweed (Lemna turionifera 5511)

Acetylcholine (ACh), an important neurotransmitter, plays a role in resistance to abiotic stress. However, the role of ACh during cadmium (Cd) resistance in duckweed (Lemna turionifera 5511) remains uncharacterized. In this study, the changes of endogenous ACh in duckweed under Cd stress has been investigated. Also, how exogenous ACh affects duckweed's ability to withstand Cd stress was studied. The ACh sensor transgenic duckweed (ACh 3.0) showed the ACh signal response under Cd stress. And ACh was wrapped and released in vesicles. Cd stress promoted ACh content in duckweed. The gene expression analysis showed an improved fatty acid metabolism and choline transport. Moreover, exogenous ACh addition enhanced Cd tolerance and decreased Cd accumulation in duckweed. ACh supplement reduced the root abscission rate, alleviated leaf etiolation, and improved chlorophyll fluorescence parameters under Cd stress. A modified calcium (Ca2+) flux and improved Cd2+ absorption were present in conjunction with it. Thus, we speculate that ACh could improve Cd resistance by promoting the uptake and accumulation of Cd, as well as the response of the Ca2+ signaling pathway. Also, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) were extracted during Cd stress. Therefore, these results provide new insights into the response of ACh during Cd stress.

An all-in-one platform to deplete pathogenic bacteria for rapid and safe enrichment of plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have exhibited several advantages, such as high biocompatibility, improvement of skin conditions, and the prevention of skin aging. However, traditional methods of extraction for plant substances, such as heating under reflux or solvent extraction, are complicated, time-consuming, and low in purity. Accordingly, a simple and efficient platform is necessary for purely isolating natural substances from plants. In this study, we report a newly designed platform for removing impurities to purify PDEVs. The proposed platform comprises three parts: (i) inflow of samples, (ii) depletion of impurities, and (iii) collection of PDEVs. The platform is designed to flow from top to bottom using gravity without the need for electric components. The platform allows the delimitation of impurities, such as the pathogenic bacteria in PDEVs, by capturing magnetic beads coated with Concanavalin A (Con A). We validate the practicality of our platform using extracellular vesicles derived from liquorice (LdEVs). Notably, the LdEVs purified using the Con A-coated magnetic beads provide better cell uptake and wound recovery than the commercialized extract LdEVs. This highlights the therapeutic potential of fresh LdEVs purified using our platform, particularly in preventing skin aging. The findings of this study hold significant practical implications for the cosmeceutical and therapeutic field, providing a promising approach for the extraction and purification of natural substances from plants to harness their benefits effectively.

Role of lipid signalling in extracellular vesicles-mediated cell-to-cell communication

Lipid signalling plays a crucial role in extracellular vesicle (EV)-mediated cell-to-cell communication. Extracellular vesicles are small membrane-bound structures released by various cell types into the extracellular environment. They include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. These vesicles contain a variety of bioactive molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids (such as miRNAs and mRNAs), and lipids. Lipids are important components of EVs and are involved in various aspects of their biogenesis, cargo sorting, and functional effects on target cells. In this review, we will discuss how lipid signalling is involved in EV-mediated cell-to-cell communication. In summary, lipid signalling is intricately involved in extracellular vesicle-mediated cell-to-cell communication. The lipid composition of EVs influences their biogenesis, cargo sorting, interactions with target cells, and functional effects on recipient cells. Understanding the role of lipids in EV-mediated communication is essential for deciphering the mechanisms underlying intercellular signalling and developing potential therapeutic strategies based on EVs.

B cell extracellular vesicles contain monomeric IgM that binds antigen and enters target cells

The production and release of small phospholipid membrane vesicles, or extracellular vesicles (EVs), is a trait of most prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. EVs display heterogeneity in content, size, biogenesis, activity, and function. B cells uniquely express immunoglobulin and produce EVs; however, the relationship between these entities has not been clarified. Here, we used several methodologies to isolate large (11,000 × g) and small (110,000 × g) EVs and evaluate their IgM content, characteristics and activity. We found that B cells from multiple cell lines and primary B cells produce EVs that display monomeric IgM on the surface and contain encapsulated monomeric IgM, which is independent of secreted pentameric IgM. Our data indicate EV IgM can bind antigen specifically, and EV IgM can be incorporated intracellularly into secondary cells. These results suggest immunological activities different from secreted pentameric IgM that may constitute a separate and distinct antibody distribution system.

Plant and mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic approach for the future

Background: In recent years, extracellular vesicles have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of active biomolecules (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) across the plant and animal kingdoms and have considerable roles in several physiological and pathological mechanisms, showing great promise as new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. Methods: In this study, we carefully reviewed the numerous articles published over the last few decades on the general knowledge of extracellular vesicles, their application in the therapy of various pathologies, and their prospects as an approach for the future. Results: The recent discovery and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of diverse origins and biogenesis have altered the current paradigm of intercellular communication, opening up new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Research into these EVs released by plant and mammalian cells has revealed their involvement in a number of physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as embryonic development, immune response, tissue regeneration, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vectors for drug delivery. Conclusion: Nanovesicles represent powerful tools for intercellular communication and the transfer of bioactive molecules. Their molecular composition and functions can vary according to their origin (plant and mammalian), so their formation, composition, and biological roles open the way to therapeutic applications in a variety of pathologies, which is arousing growing interest in the scientific community. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03608631.

Lepidium meyenii Walp (Maca)-derived extracellular vesicles ameliorate depression by promoting 5-HT synthesis via the modulation of gut-brain axis

Depression is a common and debilitating condition for which effective treatments are needed. Lepidium meyenii Walp (Maca) is a plant with potential medicinal effects in treating depression. Recently, there has been growing interest in plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) due to their low toxicity and ability to transport to human cells. Targeting the gut-brain axis, a novel strategy for depression management, may be achieved through the use of Maca-derived EVs (Maca-EVs). In this study, we successfully isolated Maca-EVs using gradient ultracentrifugation and characterized their shape, size, and markers (CD63 and TSG101). The in vivo imaging showed that the Dil-labeled Maca-EVs crossed the brain-blood barrier and accumulated in the brain. The behavioral tests revealed that Maca-EVs dramatically recovered the depression-like behaviors of unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) mice. UCMS mice fecal were characterized by an elevated abundance of g_Enterococcus, g_Lactobacillus, and g_Escherichia_Shigella, which were significantly restored by administration of Maca-EVs. The effects of Maca-EVs on the altered microbial and fecal metabolites in UCMS mice were mapped to biotin, pyrimidine, and amino acid (tyrosine, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate) metabolisms, which were closely associated with the serotonin (5-HT) production. Maca-EVs were able to increase serum monoamine neurotransmitter levels in UCMS mice, with 5-HT showing the most significant changes. We further demonstrated that 5-HT improved the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a key regulator of neuronal plasticity, and its subsequent activation of TrkB/p-AKT signaling by regulating the GTP-Cdc42/ERK pathway. These findings suggest that Maca-EVs enhance 5-HT release, possibly by modulating the gut-brain axis, to improve depression behavior. Our study sheds light on a novel approach to depression treatment using plant-derived EVs.

Amplification of microbial DNA from bacterial extracellular vesicles from human placenta

Introduction

The placenta is essential for fetal growth and survival and maintaining a successful pregnancy. The sterility of the placenta has been challenged recently; however, the presence of a placental microbiome has been controversial. We tested the hypothesis that the bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) from Gram-negative bacteria as an alternate source of microbial DNA, regardless of the existence of a microbial community in the placenta.

Methods

Placentae from the term, not in labor Cesareans deliveries, were used for this study, and placental specimens were sampled randomly from the fetal side. We developed a protocol for the isolation of BEVs from human tissues and this is the first study to isolate the BEVs from human tissue and characterize them.

Results

The median size of BEVs was 130-140 nm, and the mean concentration was 1.8-5.5 × 1010 BEVs/g of the wet placenta. BEVs are spherical and contain LPS and ompA. Western blots further confirmed ompA but not human EVs markers ALIX confirming the purity of preparations. Taxonomic abundance profiles showed BEV sequence reads above the levels of the negative controls (all reagent controls). In contrast, the sequence reads in the same placenta were substantially low, indicating nothing beyond contamination (low biomass). Alpha-diversity showed the number of detected genera was significantly higher in the BEVs than placenta, suggesting BEVs as a likely source of microbial DNA. Beta-diversity further showed significant overlap in the microbiome between BEV and the placenta, confirming that BEVs in the placenta are likely a source of microbial DNA in the placenta. Uptake studies localized BEVs in maternal (decidual) and placental cells (cytotrophoblast), confirming their ability to enter these cells. Lastly, BEVs significantly increased inflammatory cytokine production in THP-1 macrophages in a high-dose group but not in the placental or decidual cells.

Conclusion

We conclude that the BEVs are normal constituents during pregnancy and likely reach the placenta through hematogenous spread from maternal body sites that harbor microbiome. Their presence may result in a low-grade localized inflammation to prime an antigen response in the placenta; however, insufficient to cause a fetal inflammatory response and adverse pregnancy events. This study suggests that BEVs can confound placental microbiome studies, but their low biomass in the placenta is unlikely to have any immunologic impact.

Current and prospective strategies for advancing the targeted delivery of CRISPR/Cas system via extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a promising platform for gene delivery owing to their natural properties and phenomenal functions, being able to circumvent the significant challenges associated with toxicity, problematic biocompatibility, and immunogenicity of the standard approaches. These features are of particularly interest for targeted delivery of the emerging clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) systems. However, the current efficiency of EV-meditated transport of CRISPR/Cas components remains insufficient due to numerous exogenous and endogenous barriers. Here, we comprehensively reviewed the current status of EV-based CRISPR/Cas delivery systems. In particular, we explored various strategies and methodologies available to potentially improve the loading capacity, safety, stability, targeting, and tracking for EV-based CRISPR/Cas system delivery. Additionally, we hypothesise the future avenues for the development of EV-based delivery systems that could pave the way for novel clinically valuable gene delivery approaches, and may potentially bridge the gap between gene editing technologies and the laboratory/clinical application of gene therapies.

Extracellular vesicles: cross-organismal RNA trafficking in plants, microbes, and mammalian cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed nanometer-scale particles that transport biological materials such as RNAs, proteins, and metabolites. EVs have been discovered in nearly all kingdoms of life as a form of cellular communication across different cells and between interacting organisms. EV research has primarily focused on EV-mediated intra-organismal transport in mammals, which has led to the characterization of a plethora of EV contents from diverse cell types with distinct and impactful physiological effects. In contrast, research into EV-mediated transport in plants has focused on inter-organismal interactions between plants and interacting microbes. However, the overall molecular content and functions of plant and microbial EVs remain largely unknown. Recent studies into the plant-pathogen interface have demonstrated that plants produce and secrete EVs that transport small RNAs into pathogen cells to silence virulence-related genes. Plant-interacting microbes such as bacteria and fungi also secrete EVs which transport proteins, metabolites, and potentially RNAs into plant cells to enhance their virulence. This review will focus on recent advances in EV-mediated communications in plant-pathogen interactions compared to the current state of knowledge of mammalian EV capabilities and highlight the role of EVs in cross-kingdom RNA interference.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles and Their Exciting Potential as the Future of Next-Generation Drug Delivery

Plant cells release tiny membranous vesicles called extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are rich in lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and pharmacologically active compounds. These plant-derived EVs (PDEVs) are safe and easily extractable and have been shown to have therapeutic effects against inflammation, cancer, bacteria, and aging. They have shown promise in preventing or treating colitis, cancer, alcoholic liver disease, and even COVID-19. PDEVs can also be used as natural carriers for small-molecule drugs and nucleic acids through various administration routes such as oral, transdermal, or injection. The unique advantages of PDEVs make them highly competitive in clinical applications and preventive healthcare products in the future. This review covers the latest methods for isolating and characterizing PDEVs, their applications in disease prevention and treatment, and their potential as a new drug carrier, with special attention to their commercial viability and toxicological profile, as the future of nanomedicine therapeutics. This review champions the formation of a new task force specializing in PDEVs to address a global need for rigor and standardization in PDEV research.

Extracellular Vesicle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Systematic Review

It is estimated that there are over 890,000 new cases of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) worldwide each year, accounting for approximately 5% of all cancer cases. Current treatment options for HNSCC often cause significant side effects and functional impairments, thus there is a challenge to discover more acceptable treatment technologies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) can be utilized for HNSCC treatment in several ways, for example, for drug delivery, immune modulation, as biomarkers for diagnostics, gene therapy, or tumor microenvironment modulation. This systematic review summarizes new knowledge regarding these options. Articles published up to 11 December 2022, were identified by searching the electronic databases PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane. Only full-text original research papers written in English were considered eligible for analysis. The quality of studies was assessed using the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) Risk of Bias Rating Tool for Human and Animal Studies, modified for the needs of this review. Of 436 identified records, 18 were eligible and included. It is important to note that the use of EVs as a treatment for HNSCC is still in the early stages of research, so we summarized information on challenges such as EV isolation, purification, and standardization of EV-based therapies in HNSCC.

Potential of Plant Exosome Vesicles from Grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi) and Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) Juices as Functional Ingredients and Targeted Drug Delivery Vehicles

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) have gained attention as promising bioactive nutraceutical molecules; their presence in common fruit juices has increased their significance because human interaction is inevitable. The goal of this study was to evaluate the potential of PEVs derived from grapefruit and tomato juices as functional ingredients, antioxidant compounds, and delivery vehicles. PEVs were isolated using differential ultracentrifugation and were found to be similar in size and morphology to mammalian exosomes. The yield of grapefruit exosome-like vesicles (GEVs) was higher than that of tomato exosome-like vesicles (TEVs), despite the latter having larger vesicle sizes. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity of GEVs and TEVs was found to be low in comparison to their juice sources, indicating a limited contribution of PEVs to the juice. GEVs showed a higher efficiency in being loaded with the heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) than TEVs, as well as a higher efficiency than TEV and PEV-free HSP70 in delivering HSP70 to glioma cells. Overall, our results revealed that GEVs present a higher potential as functional ingredients present in juice and that they exert the potential to deliver functional molecules to human cells. Although PEVs showed low antioxidant activity, their role in oxidative response in cells should be further addressed.

Study of the Molecular Mechanisms of the Therapeutic Properties of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small biological structures that are released by cells and have important roles in intercellular communication [...].

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in nanomedicine for human disease and therapeutic modalities

BACKGROUND

The past few years have witnessed a significant increase in research related to plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in biological and medical applications. Using biochemical technologies, multiple independent groups have demonstrated the important roles of PDEVs as potential mediators involved in cell-cell communication and the exchange of bio-information between species. Recently, several contents have been well identified in PDEVs, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other active substances. These cargoes carried by PDEVs could be transferred into recipient cells and remarkably influence their biological behaviors associated with human diseases, such as cancers and inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes the latest updates regarding PDEVs and focuses on its important role in nanomedicine applications, as well as the potential of PDEVs as drug delivery strategies to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents for the clinical management of diseases, especially like cancers.

CONCLUSION

Considering its unique advantages, especially high stability, intrinsic bioactivity and easy absorption, further elaboration on molecular mechanisms and biological factors driving the function of PDEVs will provide new horizons for the treatment of human disease.

Critical Review on the Different Roles of Exosomes in TNBC and Exosomal-Mediated Delivery of microRNA/siRNA/lncRNA and Drug Targeting Signalling Pathways in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer is the most potent metastatic type of breast cancer that can spread to other body parts. Chemotherapy and surgical intervention are the sole treatments for TNBC, owing to the scarcity of therapeutic targets. Manipulation of the membranes as per the desired targets of exosomes has recently gained much attention as a drug delivery method. Despite their known roles in different diseases, very few studies have focused on signalling that triggers the metastasis of triple-negative breast cancer to other body parts by exosomes. This article highlights the significant roles of exosomes associated with TNBC, the involvement of exosomes in breast cancer diagnosis, progression, and the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer by the exosomes as a drug delivery system. This review paper also illustrates the role of exosomes in initiating EMT in breast cancer, including novel signalling.

Experiment protocols for brain-body imaging of locomotion: A systematic review

Introduction

Human locomotion is affected by several factors, such as growth and aging, health conditions, and physical activity levels for maintaining overall health and well-being. Notably, impaired locomotion is a prevalent cause of disability, significantly impacting the quality of life of individuals. The uniqueness and high prevalence of human locomotion have led to a surge of research to develop experimental protocols for studying the brain substrates, muscle responses, and motion signatures associated with locomotion. However, from a technical perspective, reproducing locomotion experiments has been challenging due to the lack of standardized protocols and benchmarking tools, which impairs the evaluation of research quality and the validation of previous findings.

Methods

This paper addresses the challenges by conducting a systematic review of existing neuroimaging studies on human locomotion, focusing on the settings of experimental protocols, such as locomotion intensity, duration, distance, adopted brain imaging technologies, and corresponding brain activation patterns. Also, this study provides practical recommendations for future experiment protocols.

Results

The findings indicate that EEG is the preferred neuroimaging sensor for detecting brain activity patterns, compared to fMRI, fNIRS, and PET. Walking is the most studied human locomotion task, likely due to its fundamental nature and status as a reference task. In contrast, running has received little attention in research. Additionally, cycling on an ergometer at a speed of 60 rpm using fNIRS has provided some research basis. Dual-task walking tasks are typically used to observe changes in cognitive function. Moreover, research on locomotion has primarily focused on healthy individuals, as this is the scenario most closely resembling free-living activity in real-world environments.

Discussion

Finally, the paper outlines the standards and recommendations for setting up future experiment protocols based on the review findings. It discusses the impact of neurological and musculoskeletal factors, as well as the cognitive and locomotive demands, on the experiment design. It also considers the limitations imposed by the sensing techniques used, including the acceptable level of motion artifacts in brain-body imaging experiments and the effects of spatial and temporal resolutions on brain sensor performance. Additionally, various experiment protocol constraints that need to be addressed and analyzed are explained.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: Recent advancements and current challenges on their use for biomedical applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a diverse class of lipid bilayer membrane vesicles released by both animal and plant cells. These ubiquitous vesicles are involved in intercellular communication and transport of various biological cargos, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. In recent years, interest in plant-derived EVs has increased tremendously, as they serve as a scalable and sustainable alternative to EVs derived from mammalian sources. In vitro and in vivo findings have demonstrated that these plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) possess intrinsic therapeutic activities that can potentially treat diseases and improve human health. In addition, PDVs can also act as efficient and biocompatible drug carriers. While preclinical studies have shown promising results, there are still several challenges and knowledge gaps that have to be addressed for the successful translation of PDVs into clinical applications, especially in view of the lack of standardised protocols for material handling and PDV isolation from various plant sources. This review provides the readers with a quick overview of the current understanding and research on PDVs, critically analysing the current challenges and highlighting the immense potential of PDVs as a novel class of therapeutics to treat human diseases. It is expected that this work will guide scientists to address the knowledge gaps currently associated with PDVs and promote new advances in plant-based therapeutic solutions.

Grape exosome-like nanoparticles: A potential therapeutic strategy for vascular calcification

Vascular calcification (VC) is prevalent in hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and aging and has been identified as an important predictor of adverse cardiovascular events. With the complicated mechanisms involved in VC, there is no effective therapy. Thus, a strategy for attenuating the development of VC is of clinical importance. Recent studies suggest that grape exosome-like nanoparticles (GENs) are involved in cell-cell communication as a means of regulating oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis, which are known to modulate VC development. In this review, we discuss the roles of GENs and their potential mechanisms in the development of VC.

Immunological Effects of Aster yomena Callus-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Potential Therapeutic Agents against Allergic Asthma

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles, (EVs), have recently gained attention as potential therapeutic candidates. However, the varying properties of plants that are dependent on their growth conditions, and the unsustainable production of plant-derived EVs hinder drug development. Herein, we analyzed the secondary metabolites of Aster yomena callus-derived EVs (AYC-EVs) obtained via plant tissue cultures and performed an immune functional assay to assess the potential therapeutic effects of AYC-EVs against inflammatory diseases. AYC-EVs, approximately 225 nm in size, were isolated using tangential flow filtration (TFF) and cushioned ultracentrifugation. Metabolomic analysis, using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS), revealed that AYC-EVs contained 17 major metabolites. AYC-EVs inhibited the phenotypic and functional maturation of LPS-treated dendritic cells (DCs). Furthermore, LPS-treated DCs exposed to AYC-EVs showed decreased immunostimulatory capacity during induction of CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell proliferation and activation. AYC-EVs inhibited T-cell reactions associated with the etiology of asthma in asthmatic mouse models and improved various symptoms of asthma. This regulatory effect of AYC-EVs resembled that of dexamethasone, which is currently used to treat inflammatory diseases. These results provide a foundation for the development of plant-derived therapeutic agents for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, as well as providing an insight into the possible mechanisms of action of AYC-EVs.

Theragnostic Applications of Mammal and Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Latest Findings, Current Technologies, and Prospects

The way cells communicate is not fully understood. However, it is well-known that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved. Researchers initially thought that EVs were used by cells to remove cellular waste. It is now clear that EVs function as signaling molecules released by cells to communicate with one another, carrying a cargo representing the mother cell. Furthermore, these EVs can be found in all biological fluids, making them the perfect non-invasive diagnostic tool, as their cargo causes functional changes in the cells upon receiving, unlike synthetic drug carriers. EVs last longer in circulation and instigate minor immune responses, making them the perfect drug carrier. This review sheds light on the latest development in EVs isolation, characterization and, application as therapeutic cargo, novel drug loading techniques, and diagnostic tools. We also address the advancement in plant-derived EVs, their characteristics, and applications; since plant-derived EVs only recently gained focus, we listed the latest findings. Although there is much more to learn about, EV is a wide field of research; what scientists have discovered so far is fascinating. This paper is suitable for those new to the field seeking to understand EVs and those already familiar with it but wanting to review the latest findings.

Focusing on Future Applications and Current Challenges of Plant Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Plant derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized membranous vesicles released by plant cells, which contain lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and specific pharmacologically active substances. They are safe, widely available and expediently extractive. They have gratifyingly biological activity against inflammation, cancer, bacteria and oxidative aging, especially for the prevention or treatment of colitis, cancer, alcoholic liver, and COVID-19. In addition, as natural drug carriers, plant derived EVs have the potential to target the delivery of small molecule drugs and nucleic acid through oral, transdermal, injection. With the above advantages, plant derived EVs are expected to have excellent strong competitiveness in clinical application or preventive health care products in the future. We comprehensively reviewed the latest separation methods and physical characterization techniques of plant derived EVs, summarized the application of them in disease prevention or treatment and as a new drug carrier, and analyzed the clinical application prospect of plant derived EVs as a new drug carrier in the future. Finally, the problems hindering the development of plant derived EVs at present and consideration of the standardized application of them are discussed.

Unconventional Secretion of Plant Extracellular Vesicles and Their Benefits to Human Health: A Mini Review

Mechanisms devoted to the secretion of proteins via extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been found in mammals, yeasts, and plants. Since they transport a number of leader-less proteins to the plasma membrane or the extracellular space, EVs are considered part of Unconventional protein secretion (UPS) routes. UPS involving EVs are a relatively new field in plants. Aside from their role in plant physiology and immunity, plant extracts containing EVs have also been shown to be beneficial for human health. Therefore, exploring the use of plant EVs in biomedicine and their potential as drug delivery tools is an exciting avenue. Here we give a summary of the state of knowledge on plant EVs, their crosstalk with mammalian systems and potential research routes that could lead to practical applications in therapeutic drug delivery.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: a novel nanomedicine approach with advantages and challenges

BACKGROUND

Many eukaryote cells produce membrane-enclosed extracellular vesicles (EVs) to establish cell-to-cell communication. Plant-derived EVs (P-EVs) contain proteins, RNAs, lipids, and other metabolites that can be isolated from the juice, the flesh, and roots of many species.

METHODS

In the present review study, we studied numerous articles over the past two decades published on the role of P-EVs in plant physiology as well as on the application of these vesicles in different diseases.

RESULTS

Different types of EVs have been identified in plants that have multiple functions including reorganization of cell structure, development, facilitating crosstalk between plants and fungi, plant immunity, defense against pathogens. Purified from several edible species, these EVs are more biocompatible, biodegradable, and extremely available from many plants, making them useful for cell-free therapy. Emerging evidence of clinical and preclinical studies suggest that P-EVs have numerous benefits over conventional synthetic carriers, opening novel frontiers for the novel drug-delivery system. Exciting new opportunities, including designing drug-loaded P-EVs to improve the drug-delivery systems, are already being examined, however clinical translation of P-EVs-based therapies faces challenges.

CONCLUSION

P-EVs hold great promise for clinical application in the treatment of different diseases. In addition, despite enthusiastic results, further scrutiny should focus on unravelling the detailed mechanism behind P-EVs biogenesis and trafficking as well as their therapeutic applications. Video Abstract.

Momordica. charantia-Derived Extracellular Vesicles-Like Nanovesicles Protect Cardiomyocytes Against Radiation Injury via Attenuating DNA Damage and Mitochondria Dysfunction

Thoracic radiotherapy patients have higher risks of developing radiation-induced heart disease (RIHD). Ionizing radiation generates excessive reactive oxygens species (ROS) causing oxidative stress, while Momordica. charantia and its extract have antioxidant activity. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) is emerging as novel therapeutic agent. Therefore, we explored the protective effects of Momordica. charantia-derived EVs-like nanovesicles (MCELNs) against RIHD. Using density gradient centrifugation, we successfully isolated MCELNs with similar shape, size, and markers as EVs. Confocal imaging revealed that rat cardiomyocytes H9C2 cells internalized PKH67 labeled MCELNs time-dependently. In vitro assay identified that MCELNs promoted cell proliferation, suppressed cell apoptosis, and alleviated the DNA damage in irradiated (16 Gy, X-ray) H9C2 cells. Moreover, elevated mitochondria ROS in irradiated H9C2 cells were scavenged by MCELNs, protecting mitochondria function with re-balanced mitochondria membrane potential. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of ROS-related proteins was recovered with increased ratios of p-AKT/AKT and p-ERK/ERK in MCELNs treated irradiated H9C2 cells. Last, intraperitoneal administration of MCELNs mitigated myocardial injury and fibrosis in a thoracic radiation mice model. Our data demonstrated the potential protective effects of MCELNs against RIHD. The MCELNs shed light on preventive regime development for radiation-related toxicity.

Plant-Derived Exosomes as A Drug-Delivery Approach for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Colitis-Associated Cancer

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent intestinal disease and includes Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Due to the complex etiology of colitis, the current treatments of IBD are quite limited and are mainly concentrated on the remission of the disease. In addition, the side effects of conventional drugs on the body cannot be ignored. IBD also has a certain relationship with colitis-associated cancer (CAC), and inflammatory cells can produce a large number of tumor-promoting cytokines to promote tumor progression. In recent years, exosomes from plants have been found to have the ability to load drugs to target the intestine and have great potential for the treatment of intestinal diseases. This plant-derived exosome-targeting delivery system can load chemical or nucleic acid drugs and deliver them to intestinal inflammatory sites stably and efficiently. This review summarizes the pathophysiological characteristics of IBD and CAC as well as the application and prospect of plant exosomes in the treatment of IBD and CAC.

Plant-RNA in Extracellular Vesicles: The Secret of Cross-Kingdom Communication

The release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a common language, used by living organisms from different kingdoms as a means of communication between them. Extracellular vesicles are lipoproteic particles that contain many biomolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The primary role of EVs is to convey information to the recipient cells, affecting their function. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) can be isolated from several plant species, and the study of their biological properties is becoming an essential starting point to study cross-kingdom communication, especially between plants and mammalians. Furthermore, the presence of microRNAs (miRNAs) in PDEVs represents an interesting aspect for understanding how PDEVs can target the mammalian genes involved in pathological conditions such as cancer, inflammation, and oxidative stress. In particular, this review focuses on the history of PDEVs, from their discovery, to purification from various matrices, and on the functional role of PDEV-RNAs in cross-kingdom interactions. It is worth noting that miRNAs packaged in PDEVs can be key modulators of human gene expression, representing potential therapeutic agents.

Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles From Microalgae: A Renewable and Scalable Bioprocess

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a crucial role as potent signal transducers among cells, with the potential to operate cross-species and cross-kingdom communication. Nanoalgosomes are a subtype of EVs recently identified and isolated from microalgae. Microalgae represent a natural bioresource with the capacity to produce several secondary metabolites with a broad range of biological activities and commercial applications. The present study highlights the upstream and downstream processes required for the scalable production of nanoalgosomes from cultures of the marine microalgae Tetraselmis chuii. Different technical parameters, protocols, and conditions were assessed to improve EVs isolation by tangential flow filtration (TFF), aiming to enhance sample purity and yield. The optimization of the overall bioprocess was enhanced by quality control checks operated through robust biophysical and biochemical characterizations. Further, we showed the possibility of recycling by TFF microalgae cells post-EVs isolation for multiple EV production cycles. The present results highlight the potential of nanoalgosome production as a scalable, cost-effective bioprocess suitable for diverse scientific and industrial exploitations.

Characterizing Kaempferia parviflora extracellular vesicles, a nanomedicine candidate

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a promising candidate for nanomedicine delivery due to their bioactive cargos, high biocompatibility to human cells, biodegradability, low cytotoxicity, and potential for large-scale production. However, the research on EVs derived from medicinal plants is very limited. In this study, Kaempferia parviflora extracellular vesicles (KPEVs) were isolated by differential and sucrose density gradient centrifugation, and their size, morphology, and surface charge were characterized using transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The biological properties of KPEVs, including their bioactive compound composition, gastric uptake, cytotoxicity, acid tolerance, and storage stability, were also examined. In addition, KPEVs had an average and uniform size of 200–300 nm and a negative surface charge of 14.7 ± 3.61 mV. Moreover, 5,7-dimethoxyflavone, the major bioactive compound of KP, was packaged into KPEVs. Meanwhile, KPEVs were resistant to gastric digestion and stably maintained at −20°C and −80°C for 8 weeks with no freeze-thaw cycle. The lipid hydrolysis during EVs storage at room temperature and 4°C were also demonstrated for the first time. Furthermore, the labeled KPEVs were internalized into adenocarcinoma gastric cells, and the cell viability was reduced in a dose-dependent manner, according to the results of the thiazolyl blue tetrazolium assay. Our study supports the potential application of KPEVs as a vehicle for anticancer or oral drugs.

Dietary modulation of large extracellular vesicles: the good and the bad for human health

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) encompassing nanovesicles derived from the endosome system and generated by plasmatic membrane shedding are of increasing interest in view of their ability to sustain cell-to-cell communication and the possibility that they could be used as surrogate biomarkers of healthy and unhealthy trajectories. Nutritional strategies have been developed to preserve health, and the impact of these strategies on circulating EVs is arousing growing interest. Data available from published studies are now sufficient for a first integration to better understand the role of EVs in the relationship between diet and health. Thus, this review focuses on human intervention studies investigating the impact of diet or its components on circulating EVs. Because of analytical bias, only large EVs have been assessed so far. The analysis highlights that poor-quality diets with elevated fat and sugar content increase levels of circulating large EVs, and these can be partly counteracted by healthy food or some food micronutrients and bioactive compounds. However, knowledge of the content and the biological functions of these diet-induced EVs is still missing. It is important to address these aspects in new research in order to state if EVs are mediators of the effects of diet on health.

Effective methods for isolation and purification of extracellular vesicles from plants

Plant extracellular vesicles (EVs) play critical roles in the cross-kingdom trafficking of molecules from hosts to interacting microbes, most notably in plant defense responses. However, the isolation of pure, intact EVs from plants remains challenging. A variety of methods have been utilized to isolate plant EVs from apoplastic washing fluid (AWF). Here, we compare published plant EV isolation methods, and provide our recommended method for the isolation and purification of plant EVs. This method includes a detailed protocol for clean AWF collection from Arabidopsis thaliana leaves, followed by EV isolation via differential centrifugation. To further separate and purify specific subclasses of EVs from heterogeneous vesicle populations, density gradient ultracentrifugation and immunoaffinity capture are then utilized. We found that immunoaffinity capture is the most precise method for specific EV subclass isolation when suitable specific EV biomarkers and their corresponding antibodies are available. Overall, this study provides a guide for the selection and optimization of EV isolation methods for desired downstream applications.