Detection of Volatile Metabolites of Garlic in Human Breast Milk

Enhancing Odor Analysis with Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry (GC-O): Recent Breakthroughs and Challenges

Gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) has made significant advancements in recent years, with breakthroughs in its applications and the identification of its limitations. This technology is widely used for analyzing complex odor patterns. The review begins by explaining the principles of GC-O, including sample preparation, separation methods, and olfactory evaluation techniques. It then explores the diverse range of applications where GC-O has found success, such as food and beverage industries, environmental monitoring, perfume and aroma development, and forensic analysis. One of the major breakthroughs in GC-O analysis is the improvement in separation power and resolution of odorants. Techniques like rapid GC, comprehensive two-dimensional GC, and multidimensional GC have enhanced the identification and quantification of odor-active chemicals. However, GC-O also has limitations. These include the challenges in detecting and quantifying trace odorants, dealing with matrix effects, and ensuring the repeatability and consistency of results across laboratories. The review examines these limitations closely and discusses potential solutions and future directions for improvement in GC-O analysis. Overall, this review presents a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in GC-O, covering breakthroughs, applications, and limitations. It aims to promote the wider usage of GC-O analysis in odor analysis and related industries. Researchers, practitioners, and anyone interested in leveraging the capabilities of GC-O in analyzing complex odor patterns will find this review a valuable resource. The article highlights the potential of GC-O and encourages further research and development in the field.

Curry-Odorants and Their Metabolites Transfer into Human Milk and Urine

SCOPE

The excretion of dietary odorants into urine and milk is evaluated and the impact of possible influencing factors determined. Furthermore, the metabolic relevance of conjugates for the excretion into milk is investigated.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Lactating mothers (n = 20) are given a standardized curry dish and donated one milk and urine sample each before and 1, 2, 3, 4.5, 6, and 8 h after the intervention. The concentrations of nine target odorants in these samples are determined. A significant transition is observed for linalool into milk, as well as for linalool, cuminaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol into urine. Maximum concentrations are reached within 1 h after the intervention in the case of milk and within 2-3 h in the case of urine. In addition, the impact of glucuronidase treatment on odorant concentrations is evaluated in a sample subset of twelve mothers. Linalool, eugenol, and vanillin concentrations increased 3-77-fold in milk samples after treatment with β-glucuronidase.

CONCLUSION

The transfer profiles of odorants into milk and urine differ qualitatively, quantitatively, and in temporal aspects. More substances are transferred into urine and the transfer needs a longer period compared with milk. Phase II metabolites are transferred into urine and milk.

Linalool, 1,8-Cineole, and Eugenol Transfer from a Curry Dish into Human Urine

SCOPE

For most substances, there are several routes of excretion from the human body. This study focuses on urinary excretion of dietary odorants and compares the results with previously obtained results on excretion into milk.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Lactating mothers (n = 18) are given a standardized curry dish and donate urine samples before and after the intervention. The odorants 1,8-cineole, linalool, cuminaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone, sotolone, eugenol, vanillin, and γ-nonalactone are quantitatively analyzed. A significant transition of up to 6 µg g-1 creatinine into urine is observed for linalool, 1,8-cineole, and eugenol. Maximum concentrations are reached 1.5 h after the intervention for 1,8-cineole and eugenol as well as 2.5 h after the intervention for linalool. Comparison with previous results reveals that the excretion pattern of odorants into urine is divergent from the one into milk. In a second intervention study (n = 6), excretion of phase II metabolites into urine is studied using β-glucuronidase treatment. Linalool and eugenol concentrations are 23 and 77 times higher after treatment than before treatment with β-glucuronidase, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The study demonstrates transition of linalool, 1,8-cineole, and eugenol from the diet into urine and excretion of glucuronides in the case of linalool, eugenol, and vanillin.

Changes in the aroma and key odorants from white garlic to black garlic using approaches of molecular sensory science: A review

Black garlic is a relatively new product that has become very popular in recent years. It is obtained by fermenting raw (white) garlic by the application of heat treatment. The undesirable pungent odor of the white garlic disappears and the black garlic product with a sweet-sour flavor is formed after various reactions during the applied heat process. As a result, black garlic is more preferred and easily consumed by the consumers compared to white garlic. This review aims to summarize the studies on the changes in the odorants during the heat treatment employed in the production of black garlic as well as the factors affecting the changes in the aroma and aroma-active compounds and the use of molecular sensory science (MSS) approach, which has been applied in recent years as a new method for the determination of the aroma compounds. This work revealed that the use of the MSS on the aroma changes in black garlic is quite limited in the literature. Thus, more studies are needed to understand the aroma changes that occur during the formation of black garlic from white garlic in more detail.

Identification of in vitro metabolites of an Allium organosulfur compound and environmental toxicity prediction as part of its risk assessment

Propyl-propane-thiosulfonate (PTSO) is an organosulfur compound found inAllium spp. Due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, PTSO has been proposed for applications in the agri-food sector, such as feed additive. However, its use with commercial purposes depends on its toxicity evaluation. The present work aimed to perform a pilot-study of toxicokinetic profile of PTSO combining in silico and in vitro techniques, important steps in the risk assessment process. In silico ecotoxicity studies were also performed considering the importance of the environmental impact of the compound before its commercial use. First, an analytical method has been developed and validated to determine the original compound and its metabolites by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The phase I and II metabolism of PTSO was predicted using Meta-Pred Web Server. For the phase I metabolism, rat (male and female) and human liver microsomes were incubated with PTSO and NADPH regeneration system. Furthermore, in the phase II, microsomes were incubated with PTSO and glutathione or uridine 5'- diphosphoglucuronic acid. The analysis revealed the presence of propylpropane thiosulfinate (PTS) originated by redox reaction in phase I, and two conjugates from the phase II: S-propylmercaptoglutathione (GSSP) and S-propylmercaptocysteine (CSSP). Additionally, considering the environmental fate of PTSO and its metabolites, the ADME parameters and the potential ecotoxicity were also predicted using in silico softwares. The results of the ecotoxicity in silico study evidenced that the metabolism induced the formation of detoxified metabolites from the parent compound, except for dimercaprol and 3-mercaptopropane1,2-diol. Further in vivo assays are needed to confirm this prediction.

Effect of Allium sativum consumption for breast feeding among postnatal Indian mothers

Breast milk is a unique form of nutrition for babies since it provides all of the essential nutrients for growth and development. Breastfeeding may also play a role in decreasing postpartum depression, and reduced the risk of breast and ovarian cancer in future. Garlic has been used as a galactogogue in India since many years. The study's major goal was to determine the effect of garlic consumption in promotion of breast feeding among the postnatal mothers in Nootan General Hospital Visnagar, India. The study employed a pre-experimental one-group pre and post-test research design, with the sample drawn via non-probability convenience sampling. The baseline preform and the 12-point modified adequacy of breast feeding checklist were used to collect data. The mean pre-test score was 3.33, and the mean post-test score was 8.33 in this study's data analysis. 5.47 was the average difference. The post-test mean was lower than the pre-test mean, indicating that garlic preparation consumption promotes breastfeeding among postnatal mothers. The pre-test stress score had a standard deviation of 2.56, while the post-test stress score had a standard deviation of 2.57.

Odorant Metabolism in Humans

Odorants are relatively small molecules which are easily taken up and distributed in the human body. Despite their relevance in everyday life, however, only a limited amount of evidence about their metabolism, pathways, and bioactivities in the human body exists. With this Review, we aim to encourage future interdisciplinary research on the function and mechanisms of the biotransformation of odorants, involving different disciplines such as nutrition, medicine, biochemistry, chemistry, and sensory sciences. Starting with a general overview of the different ways of odorant uptake and enzymes involved in the metabolism of odorants, a more precise description of biotransformation processes and their function in the oral cavity, the nose, the lower respiratory tract (LRT), and the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is given together with an overview of the different routes of odorant excretion. Finally, perspectives for future research are discussed.

Dietary Linalool is Transferred into the Milk of Nursing Mothers

SCOPE

Breast milk is repeatedly postulated to shape the first aroma and taste impressions of infants and thus impact their flavor learning. The objective of this study is to assess the transition of aroma compounds from a customary curry dish into milk.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The article prepares a standardized curry dish and administers the dish to nursing mothers (n = 18) in an intervention study. The participants donate one milk sample before and three samples after the intervention. Due to their olfactory or quantitative relevance in the curry dish, 1,8-cineole, linalool, cuminaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone, sotolone, eugenol, vanillin, and γ-nonalactone are defined as target compounds, and their transition into milk is quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A significant transition into the milk is observed for linalool, and its olfactory relevance in this respect is supported by calculated odor activity values. In contrast, no relevant levels are detected for the other eight target compounds.

CONCLUSION

Ingestion of a customary curry dish can lead to an alteration of the milk aroma, which might be perceived by the infant during breastfeeding. The current study also demonstrates that the extent of aroma transfer differs between both substances and individuals.

Effect of Lactobacillus plantarum enriched with organic/inorganic selenium on the quality and microbial communities of fermented pickles

Lactobacillus enriched with organic/inorganic selenium and pickles fermented with the Lactobacillus plantarum R were prepared. The results showed that selenium-enriched Lactobacillus plantarum R enhanced the antioxidant capacity, inhibition rate of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), nitrite degradation, and the organic acid production of fermented pickles, while Lactobacillus plantarum R enriched with inorganic selenium (R-Se-IN) showed the best performance. Twenty-three aroma-active substances and seven characteristic compounds were detected in the R-Se-IN group. Moreover, the bacterial community result revealed that Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, and Leuconostoc were predominant in the R-Se-IN group, while the other groups contained Enterobacter, Halomonas, and Klebsiella. Furthermore, the correlations between environmental factors, differential flavor substances, and microbial communities were explored based on multivariate statistical analysis. These results indicate that the addition of Lactobacillus plantarum R enriched with organic/inorganic selenium influenced the environmental factors, differential flavor substances, and microbial communities of the fermented pickles.

A literature survey of all volatiles from healthy human breath and bodily fluids: the human volatilome

This paper comprises an updated version of the 2014 review which reported 1846 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) identified from healthy humans. In total over 900 additional VOCs have been reported since the 2014 review and the VOCs from semen have been added. The numbers of VOCs found in breath and the other bodily fluids are: blood 379, breath 1488, faeces 443, milk 290, saliva 549, semen 196, skin 623 and urine 444. Compounds were assigned CAS registry numbers and named according to a common convention where possible. The compounds have been included in a single table with the source reference(s) for each VOC, an update on our 2014 paper. VOCs have also been grouped into tables according to their chemical class or functionality to permit easy comparison. Careful use of the database is needed, as a number of the identified VOCs only have level 2-putative assignment, and only a small fraction of the reported VOCs have been validated by standards. Some clear differences are observed, for instance, a lack of esters in urine with a high number in faeces and breath. However, the lack of compounds from matrices such a semen and milk compared to breath for example could be due to the techniques used or reflect the intensity of effort e.g. there are few publications on VOCs from milk and semen compared to a large number for breath. The large number of volatiles reported from skin is partly due to the methodologies used, e.g. by collecting skin sebum (with dissolved VOCs and semi VOCs) onto glass beads or cotton pads and then heating to a high temperature to desorb VOCs. All compounds have been included as reported (unless there was a clear discrepancy between name and chemical structure), but there may be some mistaken assignations arising from the original publications, particularly for isomers. It is the authors' intention that this work will not only be a useful database of VOCs listed in the literature but will stimulate further study of VOCs from healthy individuals; for example more work is required to confirm the identification of these VOCs adhering to the principles outlined in the metabolomics standards initiative. Establishing a list of volatiles emanating from healthy individuals and increased understanding of VOC metabolic pathways is an important step for differentiating between diseases using VOCs.

Quantification of Allyl Methyl Sulfide, Allyl Methyl Sulfoxide, and Allyl Methyl Sulfone in Human Milk and Urine After Ingestion of Cooked and Roasted Garlic

Due to its characteristic flavor and positive effects on human health, garlic is a highly valued food ingredient. Consumption of garlic alters the quality of body odors, which may in some instances hinder social interaction but be beneficial in other contexts, as it is assumed to contribute to early flavor learning in the breastfeeding context, for example. In previous work, allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) has been identified as the major odor-active metabolite in urine and milk, being excreted together with the odorless metabolites allyl methyl sulfoxide (AMSO) and allyl methyl sulfone (AMSO₂) after ingestion of raw garlic. The present work aimed to elucidate whether commonly used culinary thermal processing steps influence the excretion profiles of garlic-derived compounds. To this aim, urine (n = 6) and milk (n = 4) samples were donated before and after ingestion of roasted and cooked garlic and investigated by gas chromatography-olfactometry/mass spectrometry, and, in the case of milk, by aroma profile analysis. The concentrations of AMS, AMSO, and AMSO₂ were determined by stable isotope dilution assays. Sensory evaluations revealed that a garlic-like odor was perceivable in milk samples donated after ingestion of roasted and cooked garlic. Besides AMS, AMSO, and AMSO₂, no other odor-active or odorless compounds related to the ingestion of roasted or cooked garlic were detected in the urine and milk samples. Maximum concentrations of the metabolites were detected around 1–2 h after garlic intake. In some cases, a second maximum occurred around 6 h after ingestion of garlic. The cooking procedure led to a more important reduction of metabolite concentrations than the roasting procedure. These findings suggest that intake of processed garlic leads to a transfer of odor-active and odorless metabolites into milk, which contributes to early flavor learning during breastfeeding and may also have a physiological effect on the infant.

Diet-Induced Flavor Changes in Human Milk: Update and Perspectives

Dietary aroma transfer into human milk has been studied in many scenarios, including direct transmission and biotransformation. This perspective highlights recent research that focuses on the latter, with examples given in relation to 1,8-cineole and garlic-derived odorants. Three future directions are discussed, comprising (a) achieving a more comprehensive understanding of the chemical and physiological basis of aroma transfer into milk via pharmacological methods, advanced analytical techniques, and ecologically valid study designs, (b) assessing the bioactivity of odorants and their metabolites present in milk that are ingested by the infant, and (c) translating the insights gained on aroma transmission in relation to taste attributes and bioactive components of the maternal diet.

Allylmethylsulfide, a Sulfur Compound Derived from Garlic, Attenuates Isoproterenol-Induced Cardiac Hypertrophy in Rats

Allylmethylsulfide (AMS) is a novel sulfur metabolite found in the garlic-fed serum of humans and animals. In the present study, we have observed that AMS is safe on chronic administration and has a potential antihypertrophic effect. Chronic administration of AMS for 30 days did not cause any significant differences in the body weight, electrocardiogram, food intake, serum biochemical parameters, and histopathology of vital organs. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of AMS suggests that AMS is rapidly metabolized into Allylmethylsulfoxide (AMSO) and Allylmethylsulfone (AMSO₂). To evaluate the efficacy of AMS, cardiac hypertrophy was induced by subcutaneous implantation of ALZET® osmotic minipump containing isoproterenol (~5 mg/kg/day), cotreated with AMS (25 and 50 mg/kg/day) and enalapril (10 mg/kg/day) for 2 weeks. AMS and enalapril significantly reduced cardiac hypertrophy as studied by the heart weight to body weight ratio and mRNA expression of fetal genes (ANP and β-MHC). We have observed that TBARS, a parameter of lipid peroxidation, was reduced and the antioxidant enzymes (glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase) were improved in the AMS and enalapril-cotreated hypertrophic hearts. The extracellular matrix (ECM) components such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMP2 and MMP9) were significantly upregulated in the diseased hearts; however, with the AMS and enalapril, it was preserved. Similarly, caspases 3, 7, and 9 were upregulated in hypertrophic hearts, and with the AMS and enalapril treatment, they were reduced. Further to corroborate this finding with in vitro data, we have checked the nuclear expression of caspase 3/7 in the H9c2 cells treated with isoproterenol and observed that AMS cotreatment reduced it significantly. Histopathological investigation of myocardium suggests AMS and enalapril treatment reduced fibrosis in hypertrophied hearts. Based on our experimental results, we conclude that AMS, an active metabolite of garlic, could reduce isoproterenol-induced cardiac hypertrophy by reducing oxidative stress, apoptosis, and stabilizing ECM components.

Weanling Infants Prefer the Odors of Green Vegetables, Cheese, and Fish When Their Mothers Consumed These Foods During Pregnancy and/or Lactation

Infants' olfactory experience begins before birth and extends after birth through milk and complementary foods. Until now, studies on the effects of chemosensory experience in utero and/or through human milk focused on experimentally controlled exposure to only 1 target food bearing a specific odor quality and administered in sizeable amounts. This study aimed to assess whether early olfactory experience effect was measurable in "everyday conditions" of maternal food intake during pregnancy and lactation, and of infant intake at weaning, leading to expose the infant to corresponding odors as fetus, neonate, and infant up to 8 and 12 months of age. Infants' early food exposures were assessed by asking mothers to fill out diaries about their food consumption during pregnancy and breastfeeding, and about their infant's consumption during complementary feeding. To test odor liking, odorants representing a priori pleasant and unpleasant food odors, as well as odorless stimuli, were presented. The infant's exploratory behavior toward odorized bottles and nonodorized control bottles was measured in terms of mouthing duration, which is thought to reflect attraction and/or appetence. At age 8 months only, positive correlations were found between liking of some unpleasant odors and early exposure to these odors through mother's diet. No correlations were found between infants' liking of the pleasant odors and early exposures to the foods bearing these odors. This study highlights that early exposure to unpleasant food odors may increase subsequent liking (or reduce subsequent dislike) of these food odors at least until the age of 8 months.

Lactobacillus pentosus SMB718 as a probiotic starter producing allyl mercaptan in garlic and onion-enriched fermentation

Lactobacillus pentosus SMB718 has the properties of being a beneficial probiotic for human health and is a desirable starter for better flavor in fermented allium species plants.

Quantification of Volatile Metabolites Derived From Garlic (Allium sativum) in Human Urine

The consumption of garlic (Allium sativum) is widely known to (negatively) impact body odor, in particular breath and sweat, but also urine. Despite this common phenomenon, the underlying processes in the body that lead to the malodor are not yet fully understood. In previous studies we identified three volatile garlic-derived metabolites in human milk and urine, namely allyl methyl sulfide (AMS), allyl methyl sulfoxide (AMSO), and allyl methyl sulfone (AMSO₂). In the present study, we monitored the excretion processes of these metabolites via human urine after consumption of garlic over time, whereby 19 sets of eight urine samples (one sample pre-ingestion and seven samples post-ingestion) were analyzed using two-dimensional high resolution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry/olfactometry (HRGC-GC-MS/O). The highest concentrations of these metabolites were detected in urine ~1–2 h after garlic ingestion, with a second increase observed after 6–8 h in the urine of some participants. Moreover, the highest observed concentrations differed between the individual participants or test series by up to one order of magnitude.

Influence of maternal diet on flavor transfer to amniotic fluid and breast milk and children's responses: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation may provide the earliest opportunity to positively influence child food acceptance.

OBJECTIVE

Systematic reviews were completed to examine the relation among maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation, amniotic fluid flavor, breast-milk flavor, and children's food acceptability and overall dietary intake.

DESIGN

A literature search was conducted in 10 databases (e.g., PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and CINAHL) to identify articles published from January 1980 to June 2017. Data from each included study were extracted, risk of bias assessed, evidence synthesized qualitatively, conclusion statements developed, and strength of the evidence graded.

RESULTS

Eleven and 15 articles met a priori criteria for inclusion to answer questions related to maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Limited but consistent evidence indicates that flavors (alcohol, anise, carrot, garlic) originating from the maternal diet during pregnancy can transfer to and flavor amniotic fluid, and fetal flavor exposure increases acceptance of similarly flavored foods when re-exposed during infancy and potentially childhood. Moderate evidence indicates that flavors originating from the maternal diet during lactation (alcohol, anise/caraway, carrot, eucalyptus, garlic, mint) transmit to and flavor breast milk in a time-dependent manner. Moderate evidence indicates that infants can detect diet-transmitted flavors in breast milk within hours of a single maternal ingestion (alcohol, garlic, vanilla, carrot), within days after repeated maternal ingestion (garlic, carrot juice), and within 1-4 mo postpartum after repeated maternal ingestion (variety of vegetables including carrot) during lactation. Findings may not generalize to all foods and beverages. Conclusions cannot be drawn to describe the relationship between mothers' diet during either pregnancy or lactation and children's overall dietary intake.

Biomarkers of food intake for Allium vegetables

Allium vegetables are widely consumed around the world and are known for their potential bioactive components improving human health. These effects have been extensively investigated; however, the results were inconsistent in human studies. Biomarkers of food intake (BFIs) could provide objective measurements of food intake in observational studies and assess compliance in intervention studies. Therefore, the discovery and application of BFIs for Allium vegetables would facilitate the exploring and understanding of the health benefit of Allium vegetables. In this manuscript, we reviewed the currently used and potential candidate BFIs for Allium vegetables and evaluated their levels of validation. S-Allylmercapturic acid (ALMA), allyl methyl sulfide (AMS), allyl methyl sulfoxide (AMSO), allyl methyl sulfone (AMSO2), and S-allylcysteine (SAC), which are derived from organosulfur compounds, were shown to be promising candidate BFIs for garlic consumption. Further validation is needed to assess their robustness and concordance with other measures. Their applicability for the whole food group should be evaluated as well. N-Acetyl-S-(2-carboxypropyl)cysteine (CPMA) was detected in high levels in urine after both garlic and onion intake, suggesting that it may be used for the assessment of intake of Allium food group. The available information regarding its kinetics, robustness, and analytical performance is limited and needs to be assessed in further studies. No candidate BFIs specific to intake of onion, leek, chives, shallots, or ramsons were found. Untargeted metabolomics studies and further validation studies should be performed to discover more reliable BFIs for individual Allium vegetables and the whole food group. This paper serves as an example of Biomarker of Food Intake Reviews (BFIRev) and biomarker of food intake validation procedures.

Randomised clinical trial: reducing the intake of dietary FODMAPs of breastfeeding mothers is associated with a greater improvement of the symptoms of infantile colic than for a typical diet

BACKGROUND

Therapeutic diets for infantile colic lack evidence. In breastfed infants, avoiding "windy" foods by the breastfeeding mother is common.

AIM

To examine the effects of a maternal low-FODMAP (Fermentable, Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides, And Polyols) diet compared to a typical-Australian diet on infant crying-fussing durations of infants with colic in a randomised, double-blind, crossover feeding study.

METHODS

Between 2014 and 2016 exclusively breastfed infants aged ≤9 weeks meeting Wessel criteria for colic were recruited. Mothers were provided a 10-day low-FODMAP or typical-Australian diet, then alternated without washout. Infants without colic (controls) were observed prospectively and mothers remained on habitual diet. Infant crying-fussing durations were captured using a Barr Diary. Measures of maternal psychological status and samples of breast milk and infant faeces were collected.

RESULTS

Mean crying-fussing durations were 91 min/d in seven controls compared with 269 min/d in 13 colicky infants (P < 0.0001), which fell by median 32% during the low-FODMAP diet compared with 20% during the typical-Australian diet (P = 0.03), confirmed by a two-way mixed-model analyses-of-variance (ƞ_p ²  = 0.719; P = 0.049) with no order effect. In breast milk, lactose concentrations remained stable and other known dietary FODMAPs were not detected. Changes in infant faecal calprotectin were similar between diets and groups, and faecal pH did not change. Median maternal anxiety and stress fell with the typical-Australian diet (P < 0.01), but remained stable on the low-FODMAP diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal low-FODMAP diet was associated with enhanced reduction in crying-fussing durations of infants with colic. This was not related to changes in maternal psychological status, gross changes in breast milk or infant faeces. Mechanisms require elucidation. Trial Registration Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR): 12616000512426 - anzctr.org.au.

Identification and Quantification of Volatile Ramson-Derived Metabolites in Humans

Ramson (Allium ursinum) is known for its typical garlic-like aroma. Both ramson and garlic belong to the genus allium which is characterized by a high content of sulfurous compounds. However, in contrast to garlic, ramson is in general not associated with an unpleasant breath following consumption. While there is data available regarding the metabolism of volatile garlic constituents in the human body, the metabolism of ramson was not yet addressed. To elucidate if ramson has an impact on the body odor, this study aimed at identifying volatile ramson-derived metabolites in human milk and urine. Therefore, milk and urine samples were gathered before and after ramson consumption, and were analyzed sensorially by a trained human sensory panel as well as chemo-analytically applying gas chromatography-mass spectrometry/olfactometry (GC-MS/O). Sensory evaluation revealed a garlic-/cabbage like odor in milk samples obtained after ramson consumption, demonstrating that ramson consumption affected the milk aroma. Analyzes by means of GC-MS/O further confirmed excretion of three ramson-derived metabolites in milk and urine samples collected after ramson consumption, namely allyl methyl sulfide (AMS), allyl methyl sulfoxide (AMSO) and allyl methyl sulfone (AMSO₂). Of these metabolites only AMS had a garlic-/cabbage-like odor, while the other two were odorless. These metabolites were subsequently quantified using stable isotope dilution assays. Nine urine sets, each comprising eight urine samples, and nine milk sets, each comprising four samples, were analyzed. In case of the urine sets a time interval of about 24 h was monitored, in case of the milk sets a time interval of up to 9 h. Despite the fact that all samples contained the same metabolites there were relevant differences found between individual subjects, especially with regard to the temporal rate of metabolite excretion. Generally, the maxima of metabolite excretion were observed in milk sets within 3 h after ramson consumption. In urine the highest AMS and AMSO amounts were observed within 2 h whereas the maximum concentration of AMSO₂ was reached about 2 to 4 h after ramson ingestion. This study suggests that ramson constituents are heavily metabolized in the human body.

Quantification of volatile metabolites derived from garlic in human breast milk

Maternal garlic intake during pregnancy and the breastfeeding period has been reported to be associated with the potential of modulating later garlic acceptance in infants. However, the metabolism of garlic constituents in humans and their elimination and potential excretion into human milk are not yet fully understood. In previous studies, we identified volatile garlic-derived metabolites in human milk as well as in human urine, namely allyl methyl sulfide, allyl methyl sulfoxide and allyl methyl sulfone. To monitor the excretion of these garlic metabolites in a larger cohort, we quantified these metabolites in a total of 18 human milk sets, whereby each set comprised of one sample collected before and three samples after garlic consumption. The analyses revealed that the concentrations of the metabolites were most abundant 1-3.5 h after garlic consumption, with distinct differences between test persons regarding metabolite concentrations as well as temporal excretion.

Allicin Bioavailability and Bioequivalence from Garlic Supplements and Garlic Foods

Allicin is considered responsible for most of the pharmacological activity of crushed raw garlic cloves. However, when garlic supplements and garlic foods are consumed, allicin bioavailability or bioequivalence (ABB) has been unknown and in question because allicin formation from alliin and garlic alliinase usually occurs after consumption, under enzyme-inhibiting gastrointestinal conditions. The ABB from 13 garlic supplements and 9 garlic foods was determined by bioassay for 13 subjects by comparing the area under the 32-h concentration curve of breath allyl methyl sulfide (AMS), the main breath metabolite of allicin, to the area found after consuming a control (100% ABB) of known allicin content: homogenized raw garlic. For enteric tablets, ABB varied from 36–104%, but it was reduced to 22–57% when consumed with a high-protein meal, due to slower gastric emptying. Independent of meal type, non-enteric tablets gave high ABB (80–111%), while garlic powder capsules gave 26–109%. Kwai garlic powder tablets, which have been used in a large number of clinical trials, gave 80% ABB, validating it as representing raw garlic in those trials. ABB did not vary with alliinase activity, indicating that only a minimum level of activity is required. Enteric tablets (high-protein meal) disintegrated slower in women than men. The ABB of supplements was compared to that predicted in vitro by the dissolution test in the United States Pharmacopeia (USP); only partial agreement was found. Cooked or acidified garlic foods, which have no alliinase activity, gave higher ABB than expected: boiled (16%), roasted (30%), pickled (19%), and acid-minced (66%). Black garlic gave 5%. The mechanism for the higher than expected ABB for alliinase-inhibited garlic was explored; the results for an alliin-free/allicin-free extract indicate a partial role for the enhanced metabolism of γ-glutamyl S-allylcysteine and S-allylcysteine to AMS. In conclusion, these largely unexpected results (lower ABB for enteric tablets and higher ABB for all other products) provide guidelines for the qualities of garlic products to be used in future clinical trials and new standards for manufacturers of garlic powder supplements. They also give the consumer an awareness of how garlic foods might compare to the garlic powder supplements used to establish any allicin-related health benefit of garlic.

Selection and use of indigenous mixed starter cultures for mustard leaves fermentation and the improvement of cuocai characteristics

BACKGROUND

To improve the characteristics and safety of traditional cuocai, the selection and use of mixed starter cultures is important. This study aimed to isolate the main indigenous lactic acid bacteria (LABs) and yeast species from spontaneous fermented mustard leaves, and they were used as starter cultures to ferment mustard leaves.

RESULTS

Five predominant LABs, namely Q-1 (Enterococcus faecalis), G-1 (Lactobacillus plantarum), G-3 (Lactobacillus pentosus), and G-2 and G-4 (Lactobacillus buchneri) strains, and the two yeast strains J-1 (Issatchenkia orientalis) and J-2 (Issatchenkia occidentalis) were isolated from cuocai. From the results, Lb. plantarum and I. orientalis strains exhibited strong growth ability, fast acidification, and potent low-pH tolerance. Therefore, they were chosen as the mixed starter cultures to ferment mustard leaves. During the process of culture-dependent fermented mustard leaves, the changes of acidity, total crude protein, and total sugar were similar to those of culture-independent fermented mustard leaves, while the nitrite content of culture-dependent fermented mustard leaves was significantly lower than that of culture-independent fermented cuocai. According to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, the main volatile flavor compounds of fermented mustard leaves were alcohols, aldehydes, esters, and sulfides. There was no significant difference of volatile flavor compounds between the processes of culture-dependent and culture-independent fermentations.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, it was suggested that Lb. plantarum and I. orientalis strains could be used to ferment cuocai instead of the traditional ferment method to control the quality and shelf safety of cuocai. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Phytochemicals in Human Milk and Their Potential Antioxidative Protection

Diets contain secondary plant metabolites commonly referred to as phytochemicals. Many of them are believed to impact human health through various mechanisms, including protection against oxidative stress and inflammation, and decreased risks of developing chronic diseases. For mothers and other people, phytochemical intake occurs through the consumption of foods such as fruits, vegetables, and grains. Research has shown that some these phytochemicals are present in the mother’s milk and can contribute to its oxidative stability. For infants, human milk (HM) represents the primary and preferred source of nutrition because it is a complete food. Studies have reported that the benefit provided by HM goes beyond basic nutrition. It can, for example, reduce oxidative stress in infants, thereby reducing the risk of lung and intestinal diseases in infants. This paper summarizes the phytochemicals present in HM and their potential contribution to infant health.

Reducing the maternal dietary intake of indigestible and slowly absorbed short-chain carbohydrates is associated with improved infantile colic: a proof-of-concept study

BACKGROUND

To investigate if a low fermentable oligo-, di- and mono-saccharides and polyols (FODMAP) diet consumed by breastfeeding mothers may be associated with reduced symptoms of infantile colic.

METHODS

Exclusively breastfeeding mothers and their typically-developing healthy infants who met the Wessel Criteria for infantile colic were recruited from the community, to this single-blind, open-label, interventional study. After a 3-day qualifying period, mothers were provided a low FODMAP 7-day diet. On days 5, 6 and 7 mothers completed a Baby Day Diary. At baseline and at the end of the 7-day dietary intervention, breast milk was analysed for FODMAP content and infant faecal samples for pH.

RESULTS

Eighteen breastfeeding mothers (aged 27-40 years) adhered (100%) to the low FODMAP diet. Infants were of gestational age 37-40.3 weeks and aged 2-17 weeks. At entry, crying durations were a mean [95% CI] of 142 [106-61] min and fell by 52 [178-120] min (P = 0.005; ancova). Combined crying-fussing durations fell by 73 [301-223] min (n = 13; P = 0.007), as did crying episodes (P = 0.01) and fussing durations (P = 0.011). Infant sleeping, feeding, or awake-and-content durations did not change. Infant faecal pH did not change. Breast milk lactose content was stable and other known FODMAPs were not detected. At end of study, mothers reported their baby 'is much more content' and 'can be put down without crying'.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal low FODMAP diet may be associated with a reduction in infant colic symptoms. A randomized controlled study is warranted to determine if a maternal low FODMAP diet is effective in reducing symptoms.

Detection of Volatile Metabolites Derived from Garlic (Allium sativum) in Human Urine

The metabolism and excretion of flavor constituents of garlic, a common plant used in flavoring foods and attributed with several health benefits, in humans is not fully understood. Likewise, the physiologically active principles of garlic have not been fully clarified to date. It is possible that not only the parent compounds present in garlic but also its metabolites are responsible for the specific physiological properties of garlic, including its influence on the characteristic body odor signature of humans after garlic consumption. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate potential garlic-derived metabolites in human urine. To this aim, 14 sets of urine samples were obtained from 12 volunteers, whereby each set comprised one sample that was collected prior to consumption of food-relevant concentrations of garlic, followed by five to eight subsequent samples after garlic consumption that covered a time interval of up to 26 h. The samples were analyzed chemo-analytically using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry/olfactometry (GC-MS/O), as well as sensorially by a trained human panel. The analyses revealed three different garlic-derived metabolites in urine, namely allyl methyl sulfide (AMS), allyl methyl sulfoxide (AMSO) and allyl methyl sulfone (AMSO₂), confirming our previous findings on human milk metabolite composition. The excretion rates of these metabolites into urine were strongly time-dependent with distinct inter-individual differences. These findings indicate that the volatile odorant fraction of garlic is heavily biotransformed in humans, opening up a window into substance circulation within the human body with potential wider ramifications in view of physiological effects of this aromatic plant that is appreciated by humans in their daily diet.

Complementary Feeding Strategies to Facilitate Acceptance of Fruits and Vegetables: A Narrative Review of the Literature

Complementary feeding (CF), which should begin after exclusive breastfeeding for six months, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), or after four months and before six months according to the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN), is a period when the infant implicitly learns what, when, how, and how much to eat. At the onset of CF, the brain and the gut are still developing and maturing, and food experiences contribute to shaping brain connections involved in food hedonics and in the control of food intake. These learning processes are likely to have a long-term impact. Children’s consumption of fruit and vegetables (FV) is below recommendations in many countries. Thus, it is crucial to establish preferences for FV early, when infants are learning to eat. The development of food preferences mainly starts when infants discover their first solid foods. This narrative review summarizes the factors that influence FV acceptance at the start of the CF period: previous milk feeding experience; timing of onset of CF; repeated exposures to the food; variety of foods offered as of the start of the CF period; quality and sensory properties of the complementary foods; quality of the meal time context; and parental responsive feeding.