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Cheng YH, Kuo CT, Lian BY. Chameleon-Inspired Colorimetric Sensors for Real-Time Detections with Humidity. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:2254. [PMID: 38138423 PMCID: PMC10745728 DOI: 10.3390/mi14122254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
In recent decades, vapor sensors have gained substantial attention for their crucial roles in environmental monitoring and pharmaceutical applications. Herein, we introduce a chameleon-inspired colorimetric (CIC) sensor, detailing its design, fabrication, and versatile applications. The sensor seamlessly combines a PEDOT:PSS vapor sensor with a colorimetric display, using thermochromic liquid crystal (TLC). We further explore the electrical characteristics of the CIC sensor when doped with ethylene glycol (EG) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Comparative analyses of resistance change rates for different weight ratios of EG and PVA provide insights into fine-tuning the sensor's responsiveness to varying humidity levels. The CIC sensor's proficiency in measuring ambient humidity is investigated under a voltage input as small as 2.6 V, capturing resistance change rates and colorimetric shifts at relative humidity (RH) levels ranging from 20% to 90%. Notably, the sensor exhibits distinct resistance sensitivities of 9.7 mΩ (0.02% ∆R/R0)/%RH, 0.5 Ω (0.86% ∆R/R0)/%RH, and 5.7 Ω (9.68% ∆R/R0)/%RH at RH 20% to 30%, RH 30% to 80%, and RH 80% to 90%, respectively. Additionally, a linear temperature change is observed with a sensitivity of -0.04 °C/%RH. The sensor also demonstrates a colorimetric temperature sensitivity of -82,036 K/%RH at RH 20% to 30% and -514 K/%RH at RH 30% to 90%, per captured image. Furthermore, real-time measurements of ethanol vapor with varying concentrations showcase the sensor's applicability in gas sensing applications. Overall, we present a comprehensive exploration of the CIC sensor, emphasizing its design flexibility, electrical characteristics, and diverse sensing capabilities. The sensor's potential applications extend to real-time environmental monitoring, highlighting its promising role in various gas sensing fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hsuan Cheng
- Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan;
| | - Ching-Te Kuo
- Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan;
| | - Bo-Yao Lian
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan;
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Xie X, Gao N, Hunter M, Zhu L, Yang X, Chen S, Zang L. PEDOT Films Doped with Titanyl Oxalate as Chemiresistive and Colorimetric Dual-Mode Sensors for the Detection of Hydrogen Peroxide Vapor. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3120. [PMID: 36991828 PMCID: PMC10051208 DOI: 10.3390/s23063120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is commonly used as an oxidizing, bleaching, or antiseptic agent. It is also hazardous at increased concentrations. It is therefore crucial to monitor the presence and concentration of H2O2, particularly in the vapor phase. However, it remains a challenge for many state-of-the-art chemical sensors (e.g., metal oxides) to detect hydrogen peroxide vapor (HPV) because of the interference of moisture in the form of humidity. Moisture, in the form of humidity, is guaranteed to be present in HPV to some extent. To meet this challenge, herein, we report a novel composite material based on poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) doped with ammonium titanyl oxalate (ATO). This material can be fabricated as a thin film on electrode substrates for use in chemiresistive sensing of HPV. The adsorbed H2O2 will react with ATO, causing a colorimetric response in the material body. Combining colorimetric and chemiresistive responses resulted in a more reliable dual-function sensing method that improved the selectivity and sensitivity. Moreover, the composite film of PEDOT:PSS-ATO could be coated with a layer of pure PEDOT via in situ electrochemical synthesis. The pure PEDOT layer was hydrophobic, shielding the sensor material underneath from coming into contact with moisture. This was shown to mitigate the interference of humidity when detecting H2O2. A combination of these material properties makes the double-layer composite film, namely PEDOT:PSS-ATO/PEDOT, an ideal sensor platform for the detection of HPV. For example, upon a 9 min exposure to HPV at a concentration of 1.9 ppm, the electrical resistance of the film increased threefold, surpassing the bounds of the safety threshold. Meanwhile, the colorimetric response observed was 2.55 (defined as the color change ratio), a ratio at which the color change could be easily seen by the naked eye and quantified. We expect that this reported dual-mode sensor will find extensive practical applications in the fields of health and security with real-time, onsite monitoring of HPV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Xie
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics and School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang 330013, China
| | - Nan Gao
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Waterborne Coating, Nanchang 330013, China
| | - Matthew Hunter
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Ling Zhu
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics and School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang 330013, China
| | - Xiaomei Yang
- Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Shuai Chen
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics and School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang 330013, China
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Waterborne Coating, Nanchang 330013, China
| | - Ling Zang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Ahmad S, Rahman K, Cheema TA, Shakeel M, Khan A, Bermak A. Fabrication of Low-Cost Resistance Temperature Detectors and Micro-Heaters by Electrohydrodynamic Printing. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:1419. [PMID: 36144041 PMCID: PMC9504221 DOI: 10.3390/mi13091419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
EHD printing is an advanced deposition technology that is commonly utilized for the direct manufacture of electrical devices. In this study, meander-type resistive electrodes consisting of silver nanoparticles were printed directly on rigid glass and flexible polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates. High-resolution patterns of ≈50 µm linewidth were successfully printed on untreated surfaces utilizing a bigger nozzle of 100 µm inner diameter after improving the experimental settings. The manufactured electrodes were evaluated and used as Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) and micro-heaters in a systematic manner. The temperature sensors performed well, with a Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity (TCRs) of 11.5 ×10-3/°C and 13.3 ×10-3/°C, for glass and PET substrates, respectively, throughout a wide temperature range of 100 °C and 90 °C. Furthermore, the RTDs had a quick response and recovery time, as well as minimal hysteresis. The electrodes' measured sensitivities as micro-heaters were 3.3 °C/V for glass and 6.8 °C/V for PET substrates, respectively. The RTDs were utilized for signal conditioning in a Wheatstone bridge circuit with a self-heating temperature of less than 1 °C as a practical demonstration. The micro-heaters have a lot of potential in the field of soft wearable electronics for biomedical applications, while the extremely sensitive RTDs have a lot of potential in industrial situations for temperature monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salman Ahmad
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Science and Technology, Swabi 23420, Pakistan
| | - Khalid Rahman
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Science and Technology, Swabi 23420, Pakistan
| | - Taqi Ahmad Cheema
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Science and Technology, Swabi 23420, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shakeel
- Mechanical Department, CECOS University, Peshawar 25120, Pakistan
| | - Arshad Khan
- Division of Information and Computing Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha 5825, Qatar
| | - Amine Bermak
- Division of Information and Computing Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha 5825, Qatar
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Dufil G, Bernacka-Wojcik I, Armada-Moreira A, Stavrinidou E. Plant Bioelectronics and Biohybrids: The Growing Contribution of Organic Electronic and Carbon-Based Materials. Chem Rev 2022; 122:4847-4883. [PMID: 34928592 PMCID: PMC8874897 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Life in our planet is highly dependent on plants as they are the primary source of food, regulators of the atmosphere, and providers of a variety of materials. In this work, we review the progress on bioelectronic devices for plants and biohybrid systems based on plants, therefore discussing advancements that view plants either from a biological or a technological perspective, respectively. We give an overview on wearable and implantable bioelectronic devices for monitoring and modulating plant physiology that can be used as tools in basic plant science or find application in agriculture. Furthermore, we discuss plant-wearable devices for monitoring a plant's microenvironment that will enable optimization of growth conditions. The review then covers plant biohybrid systems where plants are an integral part of devices or are converted to devices upon functionalization with smart materials, including self-organized electronics, plant nanobionics, and energy applications. The review focuses on advancements based on organic electronic and carbon-based materials and discusses opportunities, challenges, as well as future steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwennaël Dufil
- Laboratory
of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, SE-601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Iwona Bernacka-Wojcik
- Laboratory
of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, SE-601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Adam Armada-Moreira
- Laboratory
of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, SE-601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Eleni Stavrinidou
- Laboratory
of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, SE-601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
- Wallenberg
Wood Science Center, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, SE-60174 Norrköping, Sweden
- Umeå
Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Campus Umeå, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
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Anisimov YA, Evitts RW, Cree DE, Wilson LD. Polyaniline/Biopolymer Composite Systems for Humidity Sensor Applications: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:2722. [PMID: 34451261 PMCID: PMC8400915 DOI: 10.3390/polym13162722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of polyaniline (PANI)/biomaterial composites as humidity sensor materials represents an emerging area of advanced materials with promising applications. The increasing attention to biopolymer materials as desiccants for humidity sensor components can be explained by their sustainability and propensity to absorb water. This review represents a literature survey, covering the last decade, which is focused on the interrelationship between the core properties and moisture responsiveness of multicomponent polymer/biomaterial composites. This contribution provides an overview of humidity-sensing materials and the corresponding sensors that emphasize the resistive (impedance) type of PANI devices. The key physicochemical properties that affect moisture sensitivity include the following: swelling, water vapor adsorption capacity, porosity, electrical conductivity, and enthalpies of adsorption and vaporization. Some key features of humidity-sensing materials involve the response time, recovery time, and hysteresis error. This work presents a discussion on various types of humidity-responsive composite materials that contain PANI and biopolymers, such as cellulose, chitosan and structurally related systems, along with a brief overview of carbonaceous and ceramic materials. The effect of additive components, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), for film fabrication and their adsorption properties are also discussed. The mechanisms of hydration and proton transfer, as well as the relationship with conductivity is discussed. The literature survey on hydration reveals that the textural properties (surface area and pore structure) of a material, along with the hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) play a crucial role. The role of HLB is important in PANI/biopolymer materials for understanding hydration phenomena and hydrophobic effects. Fundamental aspects of hydration studies that are relevant to humidity sensor materials are reviewed. The experimental design of humidity sensor materials is described, and their relevant physicochemical characterization methods are covered, along with some perspectives on future directions in research on PANI-based humidity sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuriy A. Anisimov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, 110 Science Place (Room 156 Thorvaldson Building), Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C9, Canada;
| | - Richard W. Evitts
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, 57 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada;
| | - Duncan E. Cree
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, 57 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada
| | - Lee D. Wilson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, 110 Science Place (Room 156 Thorvaldson Building), Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C9, Canada;
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Application of PEDOT:PSS and Its Composites in Electrochemical and Electronic Chemosensors. CHEMOSENSORS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors9040079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) is a highly important and attractive conducting polymer as well as commercially available in organic electronics, including electrochemical and electronic chemosensors, due to its unique features such as excellent solution-fabrication capability and miscibility, high and controllable conductivity, excellent chemical and electrochemical stability, good optical transparency and biocompatibility. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of the recent research progress of PEDOT:PSS and its composites, and the application in electrochemical and electronic sensors for detecting liquid-phase or gaseous chemical analytes, including inorganic or organic ions, pH, humidity, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), ammonia (NH3), CO, CO2, NO2, and organic solvent vapors like methanol, acetone, etc. We will discuss in detail the structural, architectural and morphological optimization of PEDOT:PSS and its composites with other additives, as well as the fabrication technology of diverse sensor systems in response to a wide range of analytes in varying environments. At the end of the review will be given a perspective summary covering both the key challenges and potential solutions in the future research of PEDOT:PSS-based chemosensors, especially those in a flexible or wearable format.
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Editorial for the Special Issue on Advances in Capacitive Sensors. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11110993. [PMID: 33167435 PMCID: PMC7694505 DOI: 10.3390/mi11110993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Capacitive sensors are an active research area with multiple advantages and great applicability [...].
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Liang R, Luo A, Zhang Z, Li Z, Han C, Wu W. Research Progress of Graphene-Based Flexible Humidity Sensor. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E5601. [PMID: 33007834 PMCID: PMC7582584 DOI: 10.3390/s20195601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Graphene is a new type of carbon material with a flexible, two-dimensional structure. Due to the excellent stability of its lattice structure and its mechanical flexibility, graphene-based materials can be applied in flexible humidity sensors. At present, the application of graphene-based flexible humidity sensors in the fields of medical care and environmental monitoring is attracting widespread attention. In this review, the basic properties of graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) as moisture-sensitive materials and methods for their preparation were introduced. Moreover, three methods for improving the performance of moisture-sensitive materials were discussed. The working principle of different types of graphene-based humidity sensors were introduced. The progress in the research on graphene-based flexible humidity sensors in four respects: Human respiration, skin moisture, human sweat, and environmental humidity were discussed. Finally, the future research, following the development trends and challenges, to develop the potential of integrated, graphene-based flexible humidity sensors were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongxuan Liang
- College of Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (R.L.); (A.L.); (Z.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.H.)
- Division of Citrus Machinery, China Agriculture Research System, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Ansheng Luo
- College of Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (R.L.); (A.L.); (Z.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.H.)
- Division of Citrus Machinery, China Agriculture Research System, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Zhenbang Zhang
- College of Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (R.L.); (A.L.); (Z.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.H.)
- Division of Citrus Machinery, China Agriculture Research System, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Zhantong Li
- College of Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (R.L.); (A.L.); (Z.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.H.)
- Division of Citrus Machinery, China Agriculture Research System, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Chongyang Han
- College of Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (R.L.); (A.L.); (Z.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.H.)
- Division of Citrus Machinery, China Agriculture Research System, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Weibin Wu
- College of Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (R.L.); (A.L.); (Z.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.H.)
- Division of Citrus Machinery, China Agriculture Research System, Guangzhou 510642, China
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Yasir M, Savi P. Dynamically Tunable Phase Shifter with Commercial Graphene Nanoplatelets. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11060600. [PMID: 32575687 PMCID: PMC7345980 DOI: 10.3390/mi11060600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In microwave frequency band the conductivity of graphene can be varied to design a number of tunable components. A tunable phase shifter based on commercial graphene nanoplatelets is introduced. The proposed configuration consists of a microstrip line with two stubs connected with a taper. On each side of the stubs there is a gap, short circuited through a via, where the commercial graphene nanoplatelets are drop casted. By applying a DC bias voltage that alters the graphene resistance the phase of the transmitted signal through the microstrip line can be varied. In order to maximize the phase shift of the transmitted signal and minimize the insertion loss, the length of the taper and the stubs are optimized by the help of circuit model and full-wave simulations. A prototype working at 4GHz is fabricated and measured. A phase variation of 33 degrees is acquired with an amplitude variation of less than 0.4 dB.
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Romero FJ, Gerardo D, Romero R, Ortiz-Gomez I, Salinas-Castillo A, Moraila-Martinez CL, Rodriguez N, Morales DP. Comparison of Laser-Synthetized Nanographene-Based Electrodes for Flexible Supercapacitors. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11060555. [PMID: 32486206 PMCID: PMC7344853 DOI: 10.3390/mi11060555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a comparative study of a cost-effective method for the mass fabrication of electrodes to be used in thin-film flexible supercapacitors. This technique is based on the laser-synthesis of graphene-based nanomaterials, specifically, laser-induced graphene and reduced graphene oxide. The synthesis of these materials was performed using two different lasers: a CO2 laser with an infrared wavelength of λ = 10.6 µm and a UV laser (λ = 405 nm). After the optimization of the parameters of both lasers for this purpose, the performance of these materials as bare electrodes for flexible supercapacitors was studied in a comparative way. The experiments showed that the electrodes synthetized with the low-cost UV laser compete well in terms of specific capacitance with those obtained with the CO2 laser, while the best performance is provided by the rGO electrodes fabricated with the CO2 laser. It has also been demonstrated that the degree of reduction achieved with the UV laser for the rGO patterns was not enough to provide a good interaction electrode-electrolyte. Finally, we proved that the specific capacitance achieved with the presented supercapacitors can be improved by modifying the in-planar structure, without compromising their performance, which, together with their compatibility with doping-techniques and surface treatments processes, shows the potential of this technology for the fabrication of future high-performance and inexpensive flexible supercapacitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J. Romero
- Pervasive Electronics Advanced Research Laboratory, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (R.R.); (N.R.)
- Department of Electronics and Computer Technology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Correspondence: (F.J.R.); (D.P.M.); Tel.: +34-958-241-000 (ext. 20193) (D.P.M.)
| | - Denice Gerardo
- Parque de Innovación Tecnológica, Facultad de Ciencias Físico Matemáticas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, 80040 Culiacán, Mexico; (D.G.); (C.L.M.-M.)
| | - Raul Romero
- Pervasive Electronics Advanced Research Laboratory, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (R.R.); (N.R.)
- Department of Electronics and Computer Technology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Ortiz-Gomez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (I.O.-G.); (A.S.-C.)
| | - Alfonso Salinas-Castillo
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (I.O.-G.); (A.S.-C.)
| | - Carmen L. Moraila-Martinez
- Parque de Innovación Tecnológica, Facultad de Ciencias Físico Matemáticas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, 80040 Culiacán, Mexico; (D.G.); (C.L.M.-M.)
| | - Noel Rodriguez
- Pervasive Electronics Advanced Research Laboratory, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (R.R.); (N.R.)
- Department of Electronics and Computer Technology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Diego P. Morales
- Department of Electronics and Computer Technology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Biochemistry and Electronics as Sensing Technologies Group, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Correspondence: (F.J.R.); (D.P.M.); Tel.: +34-958-241-000 (ext. 20193) (D.P.M.)
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