Anti-Infective and Toxicity Properties of Carbon Based Materials: Graphene and Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes

Immunodetection of Poorly Soluble Substances: Limitations and Their Overcoming

Immunoassays based on the specific antigen-antibody interactions are efficient tools to detect various compounds and estimate their content. Usually, these assays are implemented in water-saline media with composition close to physiological conditions. However, many substances are insoluble or cannot be molecularly dispersed in such media, which objectively creates problems when interacting in aquatic environments. Thus, obtaining immunoreactants and implementing immunoassays of these substances need special methodological solutions. Hydrophobicity of antigens as well as their limited ability to functionalization and conjugation are often overlooked when developing immunoassays for these compounds. The main key finding is the possibility to influence the behavior of hydrophobic compounds for immunoassays, which requires specific approaches summarized in the review. Using the examples of two groups of compounds-surfactants (alkyl- and bisphenols) and fullerenes, we systematized the existing knowledge and experience in the development of immunoassays. This review addresses the challenges of immunodetection of poorly soluble substances and proposes solutions such as the use of hydrotropes, other solubilization techniques, and alternative receptors (aptamers and molecularly imprinted polymers).

Comparative toxicity assessment of selected nanoparticles using different experimental model organisms

Nanoparticles are microscopic particles ranging in size from one to one hundred nanometers. Due to their extensive features, nanoparticles find widespread use in various fields worldwide, including cosmetics, medical diagnosis, pharmaceuticals, food products, drug delivery, electronic devices, artificial implants, and skincare. However, their unique characteristics have led to high demand and large-scale manufacturing, resulting in adverse impacts on the environment and bioaccumulation. Researchers have been exploring issues related to the environmental toxicity resulting from the high production of selected nanoparticles. This review discusses and addresses the adverse impacts of highly produced nanoparticles such as Carbon Nanotubes, Silica, Titanium dioxide, Zinc Oxide, Copper oxide, and Silver nanoparticles on different in vivo, in vitro, alternate invertebrate models, and plant models. Summarizing in vivo research on rats, rabbits, and earthworms, the review reveals that nanoparticles induce cytotoxicity, embryotoxicity, and DNA damage, primarily targeting organs like the brain, liver, kidney, and lungs, leading to nephron, neuro, and hepatotoxicity. Studying the effects on alternative models like zebrafish, Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila, sea urchins, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae demonstrates genotoxicity, apoptosis, and cell damage, affecting reproduction, locomotion, and behavior. Additionally, research on various cell lines such as HepG2, BALB/c 3 T3, and NCL-H292 during in vitro studies reveals apoptosis, increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), halted cell growth, and reduced cell metabolism. The review highlights the potentially adverse impacts of nanoparticles on the environment and living organisms if not used sustainably and with caution. The widespread use of nanoparticles poses hazards to both the environment and human health, necessitating appropriate actions and measures for their beneficial use. Therefore, this review focuses on widely used nanoparticles like zinc, titanium, copper, silica, carbon nanotubes, and silver, chosen due to their environmental toxicity when excessively used. Environmental toxicity of air, water, and soil is evaluated using environmentally relevant alternative animal models such as Drosophila, zebrafish, earthworms, etc., alongside in vivo and in vitro models, as depicted in the graphical abstract.

Surface-anchored carbon nanomaterials for antimicrobial surfaces

Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) are known for their antimicrobial (antibacterial and antiviral) activity when dispersed in a liquid, but whether this can be transferred to the surface of common materials has rarely been investigated. We have compared two typical CNMs (double-walled carbon nanotubes and few-layer graphene) in their non-oxidised and oxidised forms in terms of their antibacterial (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus) and antiviral (SARS-CoV2) activities after anchoring them onto the surface of silicone. We propose a very simple and effective protocol using the air-brush spray deposition method to entrap CNMs on the surfaces of two different silicone materials and demonstrate that the nanomaterials are anchored within the polymer while still being in contact with bacteria. We also investigated their antiviral activity against SARS-COV2 after deposition on standard surgical respiratory masks. Our results show that while suspensions of double-walled carbon nanotubes had a moderate effect on P. aeruginosa, this was not transferred after anchoring them to the surface of silicone. In contrast, graphene oxide showed a very strong antibacterial effect on P. aeruginosa and oxidised double-walled carbon nanotubes on S. aureus only when anchored to the surface. No significant antiviral activity was observed. This work paves the way for new antibacterial surfaces based on CNMs.

Comprehensive insights into oral squamous cell carcinoma: Diagnosis, pathogenesis, and therapeutic advances

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is considered the most common type of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) as it holds 90 % of HNSCC cases that arise from multiple locations in the oral cavity. The last three decades witnessed little progress in the diagnosis and treatment of OSCC the aggressive tumor. However, in-depth knowledge about OSCC's pathogenesis, staging & grading, hallmarks, and causative factors is a prime requirement in advanced diagnosis and treatment for OSCC patients. Therefore present review was intended to comprehend the OSCCs' prevalence, staging & grading, molecular pathogenesis including premalignant stages, various hallmarks, etiology, diagnostic methods, treatment (including FDA-approved drugs with the mechanism of action and side effects), and theranostic agents. The current review updates that for a better understanding of OSCC progress tumor-promoting inflammation, sustained proliferative signaling, and growth-suppressive signals/apoptosis capacity evasion are the three most important hallmarks to be considered. This review suggests that among all the etiology factors the consumption of tobacco is the major contributor to the high incidence rate of OSCC. In OSCC diagnosis biopsy is considered the gold standard, however, toluidine blue staining is the easiest and non-invasive method with high accuracy. Although there are various therapeutic agents available for cancer treatment, however, a few only are approved by the FDA specifically for OSCC treatment. The present review recommends that among all available OSCC treatments, the antibody-based CAR-NK is a promising therapeutic approach for future cancer treatment. Presently review also suggests that theranostics have boosted the advancement of cancer diagnosis and treatment, however, additional work is required to refine the role of theranostics in combination with different modalities in cancer treatment.

Virus adsorbent systems based on Amazon holocellulose and nanomaterials

The environment preservation has been an important motivation to find alternative, functional, and biodegradable materials to replace polluting petrochemicals. The production of nonbiodegradable face masks increased the concentration of microplastics in the environment, highlighting the need for sustainable alternatives, such as the use of local by-products to create efficient and eco-friendly filtering materials. Furthermore, the use of smart materials can reduce the risk of contagion and virus transmission, especially in the face of possible mutations. The development of novel materials is necessary to ensure less risk of contagion and virus transmission, as well as to preserve the environment. Taking these factors into account, 16 systems were developed with different combinations of precursor materials (holocellulose, polyaniline [ES-PANI], graphene oxide [GO], silver nanoparticles [AgNPs], and activated carbon [AC]). Adsorption tests of the spike protein showed that the systems containing GO and AC were the most efficient in the adsorption process. Similarly, plate tests conducted using the VSV-IN strain cultured in HepG2 cells showed that the system containing all phases showed the greatest reduction in viral titer method. In agreement, the biocompatibility tests showed that the compounds extracted from the systems showed low cytotoxicity or no significant cytotoxic effect in human fibroblasts. As a result, the adsorption tests of the spike protein, viral titration, and biocompatibility tests showed that systems labeled as I and J were the most efficient. In this context, the present research has significantly contributed to the technological development of antiviral systems, with improved properties and increased adsorption efficiency, reducing the viral titer and contributing efficiently to public health. In this way, these alternative materials could be employed in sensors and devices for filtering and sanitization, thus assisting in mitigating the transmission of viruses and bacteria. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Sixteen virus adsorbent systems were developed with different combinations of precursor materials (holocellulose, polyaniline (ES-PANI), graphene oxide (GO), silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), and activated carbon (AC)). The system that included all of the nanocomposites holocellulose, PANI, GO, AgNPs, and AC showed the greatest reduction in viral titration. The biocompatibility tests revealed that all systems caused only mild or moderate cytotoxicity toward human fibroblasts.

A bacterial cellulose/polyvinyl alcohol/nitro graphene oxide double layer network hydrogel efficiency antibacterial and promotes wound healing

In this study, graphene oxide (GO) was chemically modified utilizing concentrated nitric acid to produce a nitrated graphene oxide derivative (NGO) with enhanced oxidation level, improved dispersibility, and increased antibacterial activity. A double-layer composite hydrogel material (BC/PVA/NGO) with a core-shell structure was fabricated by utilizing bacterial cellulose (BC) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) binary composite hydrogel scaffold as the inner network template, and hydrophilic polymer (PVA) loaded with antibacterial material (NGO) as the outer network. The fabrication process involved physical crosslinking based on repeated freezing and thawing. The resulting BC/PVA/NGO hydrogel exhibited a porous structure, favorable mechanical properties, antibacterial efficacy, and biocompatibility. Subsequently, the performance of BC/PVA/NGO hydrogel in promoting wound healing was evaluated using a mouse skin injury model. The findings demonstrated that the BC/PVA/NGO hydrogel treatment group facilitated improved wound healing in the mouse skin injury model compared to the control group and the BC/PVA group. This enhanced wound healing capability was attributed primarily to the excellent antibacterial and tissue repair properties of the BC/PVA/NGO hydrogel.

Staphylococcus aureus epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations and application of nano-therapeutics as a promising approach to combat methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium and one of the most prevalent infectious disease-related causes of morbidity and mortality in adults. This pathogen can trigger a broad spectrum of diseases, from sepsis and pneumonia to severe skin infections that can be fatal. In this review, we will provide an overview of S. aureus and discuss the extensive literature on epidemiology, transmission, genetic diversity, evolution and antibiotic resistance strains, particularly methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA). While many different virulence factors that S. aureus produces have been investigated as therapeutic targets, this review examines recent nanotechnology approaches, which employ materials with atomic or molecular dimensions and are being used to diagnose, treat, or eliminate the activity of S. aureus. Finally, having a deeper understanding and clearer grasp of the roles and contributions of S. aureus determinants, antibiotic resistance, and nanotechnology will aid us in developing anti-virulence strategies to combat the growing scarcity of effective antibiotics against S. aureus.

Carbon-Based Nanostructures as Emerging Materials for Gene Delivery Applications

Gene therapeutics are promising for treating diseases at the genetic level, with some already validated for clinical use. Recently, nanostructures have emerged for the targeted delivery of genetic material. Nanomaterials, exhibiting advantageous properties such as a high surface-to-volume ratio, biocompatibility, facile functionalization, substantial loading capacity, and tunable physicochemical characteristics, are recognized as non-viral vectors in gene therapy applications. Despite progress, current non-viral vectors exhibit notably low gene delivery efficiency. Progress in nanotechnology is essential to overcome extracellular and intracellular barriers in gene delivery. Specific nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon quantum dots (CQDs), nanodiamonds (NDs), and similar carbon-based structures can accommodate diverse genetic materials such as plasmid DNA (pDNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), small interference RNA (siRNA), micro RNA (miRNA), and antisense oligonucleotides (AONs). To address challenges such as high toxicity and low transfection efficiency, advancements in the features of carbon-based nanostructures (CBNs) are imperative. This overview delves into three types of CBNs employed as vectors in drug/gene delivery systems, encompassing their synthesis methods, properties, and biomedical applications. Ultimately, we present insights into the opportunities and challenges within the captivating realm of gene delivery using CBNs.

Cytotoxicity of Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene, Fullerenes, and Dots

The cytotoxicity of carbon nanomaterials is a very important issue for microorganisms, animals, and humans. Here, we discuss the issues of cytotoxicity of carbon nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes, graphene, fullerene, and dots. Cytotoxicity issues, such as cell viability and drug release, are considered. The main part of the review is dedicated to important cell viability issues. They are presented for A549 human melanoma, E. coli, osteosarcoma, U2-OS, SAOS-2, MG63, U87, and U118 cell lines. Then, important drug release issues are discussed. Bioimaging results are shown here to illustrate the use of carbon derivatives as markers in any type of imaging used in vivo/in vitro. Finally, perspectives of the field are presented. The important issue is single-cell viability. It can allow a correlation of the functionality of organelles of single cells with the development of cancer. Such organelles are mitochondria, nuclei, vacuoles, and reticulum. It allows for finding biochemical evidence of cancer prevention in single cells. The development of investigation methods for single-cell level detection of viability stimulates the cytotoxicity investigative field. The development of single-cell microscopy is needed to improve the resolution and accuracy of investigations. The importance of cytotoxicity is drug release. It is important to control the amount of drug that is released. This is performed with pH, temperature, and electric stimulation. Further development of drug loading and bioimaging is important to decrease the cytotoxicity of carbon nanomaterials. We hope that this review is useful for researchers from all disciplines across the world.