1
|
Karunarathna SC, Patabendige NM, Lu W, Asad S, Hapuarachchi KK. An In-Depth Study of Phytopathogenic Ganoderma: Pathogenicity, Advanced Detection Techniques, Control Strategies, and Sustainable Management. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:414. [PMID: 38921400 PMCID: PMC11204718 DOI: 10.3390/jof10060414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Phytopathogenic Ganoderma species pose a significant threat to global plant health, resulting in estimated annual economic losses exceeding USD (US Dollars) 68 billion in the agriculture and forestry sectors worldwide. To combat this pervasive menace effectively, a comprehensive understanding of the biology, ecology, and plant infection mechanisms of these pathogens is imperative. This comprehensive review critically examines various aspects of Ganoderma spp., including their intricate life cycle, their disease mechanisms, and the multifaceted environmental factors influencing their spread. Recent studies have quantified the economic impact of Ganoderma infections, revealing staggering yield losses ranging from 20% to 80% across various crops. In particular, oil palm plantations suffer devastating losses, with an estimated annual reduction in yield exceeding 50 million metric tons. Moreover, this review elucidates the dynamic interactions between Ganoderma and host plants, delineating the pathogen's colonization strategies and its elicitation of intricate plant defense responses. This comprehensive analysis underscores the imperative for adopting an integrated approach to Ganoderma disease management. By synergistically harnessing cultural practices, biological control, and chemical treatments and by deploying resistant plant varieties, substantial strides can be made in mitigating Ganoderma infestations. Furthermore, a collaborative effort involving scientists, breeders, and growers is paramount in the development and implementation of sustainable strategies against this pernicious plant pathogen. Through rigorous scientific inquiry and evidence-based practices, we can strive towards safeguarding global plant health and mitigating the dire economic consequences inflicted by Ganoderma infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha C. Karunarathna
- Center for Yunnan Plateau Biological Resources Protection and Utilization, College of Biological Resource and Food Engineering, Qujing Normal University, Qujing 655011, China;
- National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantane Road, Kandy 20000, Sri Lanka
| | | | - Wenhua Lu
- Center of Excellence in Microbial Diversity and Sustainable Utilization, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand;
| | - Suhail Asad
- School of Biology and Chemistry, Pu’er University, Pu’er 665000, China;
| | - Kalani K. Hapuarachchi
- College of Biodiversity Conservation, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sajjan U, Hubballi M, Pandey AK, Devappa V, Maheswarappa HP. Characterizations of Ganoderma species causing basal stem rot disease in coconut tree. 3 Biotech 2024; 14:104. [PMID: 38464612 PMCID: PMC10923766 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-023-03872-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The basal stem rot disease incidence ranged from 0 to 5% in Karnataka India during the year 2019-20. Twenty pathogenic isolates of Ganoderma sp varied with cultural characteristics and virulence on coconut seedlings of the variety Tipatur Tall. The identity of each isolate was confirmed through morphological characters and through ITS sequencing. Two isolates viz., G4 and G5 were identified as Ganoderma applanatum and remaining all isolates were identified as G. lucidum. The genetic diversity analysis of Ganoderma isolates was done using ten Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and fifteen Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) primers. Among the ten RAPD primers, only eight primers recorded polymorphism (33.30-66.70%). The primer SBS-Q3 exhibited the highest polymorphism of 66.70%. In case of ISSR primers, all primers recorded polymorphism (33.30-60.00%). The primer UBC866 was the most polymorphic primer with 60.0% polymorphism. RAPD and ISSR markers were compared for their efficacy in assessing the genetic diversity by taking the band frequency, Shannon's index, polymorphic information content, resolving power, and mean resolving power into consideration, and it was concluded that ISSR was marker of choice over RAPD. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03872-w.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Umesh Sajjan
- University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka 587104 India
| | | | - Abhay K. Pandey
- Department of Mycology and Microbiology, Tea Research Association, North Bengal Regional, R and D Center, Nagrakata, 735225 West Bengal India
| | - V. Devappa
- University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka 587104 India
| | - H. P. Maheswarappa
- Department of Mycology and Microbiology, Tea Research Association, North Bengal Regional, R and D Center, Nagrakata, 735225 West Bengal India
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Khoo YW, Chong KP. Ganoderma boninense: general characteristics of pathogenicity and methods of control. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1156869. [PMID: 37492765 PMCID: PMC10363743 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1156869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Ganoderma boninense (G. boninense) is a soil-borne fungus threatening oil palm at the present. It causes basal stem rot disease on oil palm. Within six months, this fungus can cause an oil palm plantation to suffer a significant 43% economic loss. The high persistence and nature of spread of G. boninense in soil make control of the disease challenging. Therefore, controlling the pathogen requires a thorough understanding of the mechanisms that underlie pathogenicity as well as its interactions with host plants. In this paper, we present the general characteristics, the pathogenic mechanisms, and the host's defensive system of G. boninense. We also review upcoming and most promising techniques for disease management that will have the least negative effects on the environment and natural resources.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wei Khoo
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Khim Phin Chong
- Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lo ML, Thanh TAV, Midot F, Lau SYL, Wong WC, Tung HJ, Jee MS, Chin MY, Melling L. Comparison of Ganoderma boninense Isolate's Aggressiveness Using Infected Oil Palm Seedlings. J Microbiol 2023; 61:449-459. [PMID: 37097587 PMCID: PMC10167175 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-023-00040-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
Abstract
Basal stem rot incidence caused by a white-rot fungus, Ganoderma boninense, is the major disease of oil palm in Southeast Asia. The rate of disease transmission and host damage are affected by variations in pathogen aggressiveness. Several other studies have used the disease severity index (DSI) to determine G. boninense aggressiveness levels while verifying disease using a culture-based method, which might not provide accurate results or be feasible in all cases. To differentiate G. boninense aggressiveness, we employed the DSI and vegetative growth measurement of infected oil palm seedlings. Disease confirmation was performed through scanning electron microscopy and molecular identification of fungal DNA from both infected tissue and fungi isolated from Ganoderma selective medium. Two-month-old oil palm seedlings were artificially inoculated with G. boninense isolates (2, 4A, 5A, 5B, and 7A) sampled from Miri (Lambir) and Mukah (Sungai Meris and Sungai Liuk), Sarawak. The isolates were categorized into three groups: highly aggressive (4A and 5B), moderately aggressive (5A and 7A), and less aggressive (2). Isolate 5B was identified as the most aggressive, and it was the only one to result in seedling mortality. Out of the five vegetative growth parameters measured, only the bole size between treatments was not affected. The integration of both conventional and molecular approaches in disease confirmation allows for precise detection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mei Lieng Lo
- Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Tu Anh Vu Thanh
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Frazer Midot
- Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Sharon Yu Ling Lau
- Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
| | - Wei Chee Wong
- Advanced Agriecological Research Sdn. Bhd., Kota Damansara, 47810, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hun Jiat Tung
- Advanced Agriecological Research Sdn. Bhd., Kota Damansara, 47810, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mui Sie Jee
- Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Mei-Yee Chin
- Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Lulie Melling
- Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Haw YH, Lai KW, Chuah JH, Bejo SK, Husin NA, Hum YC, Yee PL, Tee CATH, Ye X, Wu X. Classification of basal stem rot using deep learning: a review of digital data collection and palm disease classification methods. PeerJ Comput Sci 2023; 9:e1325. [PMID: 37346512 PMCID: PMC10280561 DOI: 10.7717/peerj-cs.1325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Oil palm is a key agricultural resource in Malaysia. However, palm disease, most prominently basal stem rot caused at least RM 255 million of annual economic loss. Basal stem rot is caused by a fungus known as Ganoderma boninense. An infected tree shows few symptoms during early stage of infection, while potentially suffers an 80% lifetime yield loss and the tree may be dead within 2 years. Early detection of basal stem rot is crucial since disease control efforts can be done. Laboratory BSR detection methods are effective, but the methods have accuracy, biosafety, and cost concerns. This review article consists of scientific articles related to the oil palm tree disease, basal stem rot, Ganoderma Boninense, remote sensors and deep learning that are listed in the Web of Science since year 2012. About 110 scientific articles were found that is related to the index terms mentioned and 60 research articles were found to be related to the objective of this research thus included in this review article. From the review, it was found that the potential use of deep learning methods were rarely explored. Some research showed unsatisfactory results due to limitations on dataset. However, based on studies related to other plant diseases, deep learning in combination with data augmentation techniques showed great potentials, showing remarkable detection accuracy. Therefore, the feasibility of analyzing oil palm remote sensor data using deep learning models together with data augmentation techniques should be studied. On a commercial scale, deep learning used together with remote sensors and unmanned aerial vehicle technologies showed great potential in the detection of basal stem rot disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Hong Haw
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Khin Wee Lai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Joon Huang Chuah
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Siti Khairunniza Bejo
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nur Azuan Husin
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Yan Chai Hum
- Department of Mechatronics and Biomedical Engineering, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Bandar Sungai Long, Cheras, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Por Lip Yee
- Department of Computer System and Technology, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | | | - Xin Ye
- YLZ Eaccessy Information Technology Co., Ltd, Xiamen, China
| | - Xiang Wu
- School of Medical Information and Engineering, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zakaria L. Basal Stem Rot of Oil Palm: The Pathogen, Disease Incidence, and Control Methods. PLANT DISEASE 2023; 107:603-615. [PMID: 35819350 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-02-22-0358-fe] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Basal stem rot of oil palm caused by Ganoderma boninense is the most serious disease of oil palm in Malaysia, Indonesia, and other oil-palm-producing countries. Economic losses caused by the disease can be up to USD500 million a year. For many years, basal stem rot was found to infect older palm trees of more than 25 to 30 years in age. Only in the 1950s, the disease began to appear in much younger palm trees, 10 to 15 years old, and, in the last decade or so, palm trees as young as 1 year were infected by the disease. The highest incidence occurs in coastal areas of Southeast Asia but the disease has now infected oil palm in inland areas, mainly oil palm planted in peat soils. Disease incidence is also high in areas previously growing coconut or forest. Basal stem rot infection and spread occur through root-to-root contact, and basidiospores that colonize the roots also play a role. In the early stages of infection by G. boninense, the pathogen behaves as a biotroph and later as a necrotroph, secreting cell-wall-degrading enzymes and triggering host defense responses. Genes, gene products, and metabolic pathways involved in oil palm defense mechanisms against G. boninense have been identified and these metabolites have the potential to be used as markers for early detection of the disease. Integrated disease management used to control basal stem rot includes cultural practices, chemical control, and application of biocontrol agents or fertilizers. Early detection tools have also been developed that could assist in management of basal stem rot infections. Development of resistant or tolerant oil palm is still at an early stage; therefore, the existing integrated disease management practices remain the most appropriate methods for managing basal stem rot of oil palm.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Latiffah Zakaria
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Jiang J, Feindel W, Harding M, Feindel D, Bajema S, Feng J. Development and Evaluation of a Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) Method for Detection of the Potato Powdery Scab Pathogen Spongospora subterranea. PLANT DISEASE 2023; 107:136-141. [PMID: 35748732 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-05-22-1000-sr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Spongospora subterranea is the causal agent of powdery scab of potato (Solanum tuberosum), which can significantly reduce potato quality. In this study, we developed and evaluated a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method for the detection of S. subterranea. A set of LAMP primers named PS-LAMP was designed and tested for specificity and sensitivity. In the specificity test, in silico analysis using the NCBI Primer-BLAST tool indicated that PS-LAMP was specific to S. subterranea. The in vitro tests confirmed specificity, showing that PS-LAMP could produce positive signals from DNA isolated from each of three potato tubers with powdery scab symptoms but did not produce positive signals from DNA isolated from 38 nontarget plant pathogens. The sensitivity of PS-LAMP was tested on both gBlocks and DNA isolated from potato samples with powdery scab symptoms. On gBlocks, the lowest number of copies for a positive LAMP reaction was six, which was similar to results obtained via qPCR, but it was 10 times more sensitive than conventional PCR. On a DNA sample from S. subterranea-infected potato, the lowest amount of template DNA for a positive LAMP reaction was 2 pg, which was incomparable with the sensitivity of qPCR. Considering the convenience of the LAMP technique, as well as the high specificity and sensitivity, this assay can be very useful for plant pathology practitioners and diagnostic labs interested in rapid, accurate, and routine detection of S. subterranea and confirmation of powdery scab disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junye Jiang
- Potato Growers of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T5Y 6H3, Canada
| | - Will Feindel
- Potato Growers of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T5Y 6H3, Canada
| | - Michael Harding
- Crop Diversification Centre South, Alberta Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Economic Development (AAFRED), Brooks, AB, T1R 1E6, Canada
| | - David Feindel
- Alberta Plant Health Lab, AAFRED, Edmonton, AB, T5Y 6H3, Canada
| | - Stacey Bajema
- Potato Growers of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T5Y 6H3, Canada
| | - Jie Feng
- Alberta Plant Health Lab, AAFRED, Edmonton, AB, T5Y 6H3, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Khairi MHF, Nor Muhammad NA, Bunawan H, Abdul Murad AM, Ramzi AB. Unveiling the Core Effector Proteins of Oil Palm Pathogen Ganoderma boninense via Pan-Secretome Analysis. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8080793. [PMID: 36012782 PMCID: PMC9409662 DOI: 10.3390/jof8080793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Ganoderma boninense is the major causal agent of basal stem rot (BSR) disease in oil palm, causing the progressive rot of the basal part of the stem. Despite its prominence, the key pathogenicity determinants for the aggressive nature of hemibiotrophic infection remain unknown. In this study, genome sequencing and the annotation of G. boninense T10 were carried out using the Illumina sequencing platform, and comparative genome analysis was performed with previously reported G. boninense strains (NJ3 and G3). The pan-secretome of G. boninense was constructed and comprised 937 core orthogroups, 243 accessory orthogroups, and 84 strain-specific orthogroups. In total, 320 core orthogroups were enriched with candidate effector proteins (CEPs) that could be classified as carbohydrate-active enzymes, hydrolases, and non-catalytic proteins. Differential expression analysis revealed an upregulation of five CEP genes that was linked to the suppression of PTI signaling cascade, while the downregulation of four CEP genes was linked to the inhibition of PTI by preventing host defense elicitation. Genome architecture analysis revealed the one-speed architecture of the G. boninense genome and the lack of preferential association of CEP genes to transposable elements. The findings obtained from this study aid in the characterization of pathogenicity determinants and molecular biomarkers of BSR disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Hazwan Fikri Khairi
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (M.H.F.K.); (N.A.N.M.); (H.B.)
| | - Nor Azlan Nor Muhammad
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (M.H.F.K.); (N.A.N.M.); (H.B.)
| | - Hamidun Bunawan
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (M.H.F.K.); (N.A.N.M.); (H.B.)
| | - Abdul Munir Abdul Murad
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Ahmad Bazli Ramzi
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (M.H.F.K.); (N.A.N.M.); (H.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +603-8921-4546; Fax: +603-8921-3398
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Yang HD, Ding Y, Wen TC, Hapuarachchi KK, Wei DP. Ganodermaovisporum sp. nov. (Polyporales, Polyporaceae) from Southwest China. Biodivers Data J 2022; 10:e80034. [PMID: 36761562 PMCID: PMC9848459 DOI: 10.3897/bdj.10.e80034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Ganoderma is a white-rot fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution and includes several economically important species. This genus has been extensively researched due to its beneficial medicinal properties and chemical constituents with potential nutritional and therapeutic values. Traditionally, species of Ganoderma were identified solely based on morphology; however, recent molecular studies revealed that many morphology-based species are conspecific. Furthermore, some type species are in poor condition, which hinders us from re-examining their taxonomic characteristics and obtaining their molecular data. Therefore, new species and fresh collections with multigene sequences are needed to fill the loopholes and to understand the biological classification system of Ganoderma. New information In a survey of Ganoderma in Guizhou Province, southwest China, we found a new species growing on soil and, herein, it was identified by both morphology and phylogenetic evidence. Hence, we propose a new species, Ganodermaovisporum sp. nov. This species is characterised by an annual, stipitate, laccate basidiome, with a red-brown to brownish-black pileus surface and pale white pores, duplex context, clavate pileipellis terminal cells, trimitic hyphal system, ellipsoid basidiospores with dark brown eusporium bearing coarse echinulae and an obtuse turgid appendix. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed that the novel species sisters to G.sandunense with high bootstrap support. Furthermore, the RPB2 sequence of G.sandunense is supplied for the first time. Notably, we re-examined the type specimen of G.sandunense and provide a more precise description of the duplex context, pileipellis terminal cells and basidia. All species collected are described and illustrated with coloured photographs. Moreover, we present an updated phylogeny for Ganoderma, based on nLSU, ITS, RPB2 and TEF1-α DNA sequence data and species relationships and classification are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong-De Yang
- Key Laboratory of Forest Biotechnology in Yunnan, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, ChinaKey Laboratory of Forest Biotechnology in Yunnan, Southwest Forestry UniversityKunmingChina,The Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaThe Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources Ministry of Education, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina,Center of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, ThailandCenter of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang UniversityChiang RaiThailand
| | - Yong Ding
- Key Laboratory of Forest Biotechnology in Yunnan, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, ChinaKey Laboratory of Forest Biotechnology in Yunnan, Southwest Forestry UniversityKunmingChina
| | - Ting-Chi Wen
- The Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaThe Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources Ministry of Education, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina,State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Guiyang, ChinaState Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural BioengineeringGuiyangChina,The Mushroom Research Centre, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaThe Mushroom Research Centre, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina
| | - Kalani Kanchana Hapuarachchi
- The Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaThe Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources Ministry of Education, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina,Center of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, ThailandCenter of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang UniversityChiang RaiThailand,The Mushroom Research Centre, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaThe Mushroom Research Centre, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina,State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaState Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina
| | - De-Ping Wei
- The Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaThe Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources Ministry of Education, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina,Center of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, ThailandCenter of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang UniversityChiang RaiThailand,The Mushroom Research Centre, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaThe Mushroom Research Centre, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina,State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, ChinaState Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Guizhou UniversityGuiyangChina,Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, ThailandDepartment of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai UniversityChiang MaiThailand
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bharudin I, Ab Wahab AFF, Abd Samad MA, Xin Yie N, Zairun MA, Abu Bakar FD, Abdul Murad AM. Review Update on the Life Cycle, Plant–Microbe Interaction, Genomics, Detection and Control Strategies of the Oil Palm Pathogen Ganoderma boninense. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11020251. [PMID: 35205119 PMCID: PMC8869222 DOI: 10.3390/biology11020251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Plant pathogens are key threats to agriculture and global food security, causing various crop diseases that lead to massive economic losses. Palm oil is a commodity export of economic importance in Southeast Asia, especially in Malaysia and Indonesia. However, the sustainability of oil palm plantations and production is threatened by basal stem rot (BSR), a devastating disease predominantly caused by the fungus Ganoderma boninense Pat. In Malaysia, infected trees have been reported in nearly 60% of plantation areas, and economic losses are estimated to reach up to ~USD500 million a year. This review covers the current knowledge of the mechanisms utilized by G. boninense during infection and the methods used in the disease management to reduce BSR, including cultural practices, chemical treatments and antagonistic microorganism manipulations. Newer developments arising from multi-omics technologies such as whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) are also reviewed. Future directions are proposed to increase the understanding of G. boninense invasion mechanisms against oil palm. It is hoped that this review can contribute towards an improved disease management and a sustainable oil palm production in this region.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Izwan Bharudin
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; (A.F.F.A.W.); (M.A.A.S.); (N.X.Y.); (M.A.Z.); (F.D.A.B.); (A.M.A.M.)
- Fraser’s Hill Research Centre (PPBF), Faculty of Science & Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
- Correspondence:
| | - Anis Farhan Fatimi Ab Wahab
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; (A.F.F.A.W.); (M.A.A.S.); (N.X.Y.); (M.A.Z.); (F.D.A.B.); (A.M.A.M.)
- FGV Innovation Centre (Biotechnology), Pt. 23417 Lengkuk Teknologi, Bandar Enstek 71760, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Asyraff Abd Samad
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; (A.F.F.A.W.); (M.A.A.S.); (N.X.Y.); (M.A.Z.); (F.D.A.B.); (A.M.A.M.)
| | - Ng Xin Yie
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; (A.F.F.A.W.); (M.A.A.S.); (N.X.Y.); (M.A.Z.); (F.D.A.B.); (A.M.A.M.)
| | - Madihah Ahmad Zairun
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; (A.F.F.A.W.); (M.A.A.S.); (N.X.Y.); (M.A.Z.); (F.D.A.B.); (A.M.A.M.)
- Plant Pathology & Biosecurity Unit, Biology & Sustainability Research Division, 6, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang 43000, Malaysia
| | - Farah Diba Abu Bakar
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; (A.F.F.A.W.); (M.A.A.S.); (N.X.Y.); (M.A.Z.); (F.D.A.B.); (A.M.A.M.)
| | - Abdul Munir Abdul Murad
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; (A.F.F.A.W.); (M.A.A.S.); (N.X.Y.); (M.A.Z.); (F.D.A.B.); (A.M.A.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Ganapathy D, Siddiqui Y, Ahmad K, Adzmi F, Ling KL. Alterations in Mycelial Morphology and Flow Cytometry Assessment of Membrane Integrity of Ganoderma boninense Stressed by Phenolic Compounds. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:930. [PMID: 34571807 PMCID: PMC8468247 DOI: 10.3390/biology10090930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Global increase in demand for palm oil has caused an intensification in oil palm plantation; however, production is greatly hindered by Basal Stem Rot (BSR) disease caused by Ganoderma boninense. There are many approaches to controlling BSR, although, there is no accurate, sustainable and effective method to suppress G. boninense completely. Hence, four phenolic compounds [Gallic acid (GA), Thymol (THY), Propolis (PRO) and Carvacrol (CARV)] were selected to evaluate their antifungal effect, ability to alter the mycelium morphology, and fungal cell integrity against G. boninense. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed and 94% of inhibition was exerted by GA on G. boninense growth. Scanning Electron Microscopy and High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy observations revealed that GA and THY treatment caused severe damage to the mycelium and recorded the highest amount of sugar and electrolyte leakage. The study of cell integrity and morphological disruption has elucidated the reduction of G. boninense cell viability. Generally, our findings confirm the fungistatic effects of GA and THY. The evolution of phenolic compounds during the phytopathology studies indicated their coherence in eradicating the G. boninense. It is proposed that GA and THY had the potential to be developed further as a natural antifungal treatment to suppress G. boninense.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daarshini Ganapathy
- Laboratory of Sustainable Agronomy and Crop Protection, Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (D.G.); (F.A.); (K.L.L.)
| | - Yasmeen Siddiqui
- Laboratory of Sustainable Agronomy and Crop Protection, Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (D.G.); (F.A.); (K.L.L.)
| | - Khairulmazmi Ahmad
- Laboratory of Sustainable Agronomy and Crop Protection, Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (D.G.); (F.A.); (K.L.L.)
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
| | - Fariz Adzmi
- Laboratory of Sustainable Agronomy and Crop Protection, Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (D.G.); (F.A.); (K.L.L.)
| | - Kong Lih Ling
- Laboratory of Sustainable Agronomy and Crop Protection, Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (D.G.); (F.A.); (K.L.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Surendran A, Siddiqui Y, Ahmad K, Fernanda R. Deciphering the Physicochemical and Microscopical Changes in Ganoderma boninense-Infected Oil Palm Woodblocks under the Influence of Phenolic Compounds. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10091797. [PMID: 34579330 PMCID: PMC8470138 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
The threat of Ganoderma boninense, the causal agent of basal stem rot disease, in the oil palm industry warrants finding an effective control for it. The weakest link in the disease management strategy is the unattended stumps/debris in the plantations. Hence, this study aimed to determine whether the selected phenolic compounds could control G. boninense in inoculated oil palm woodblocks and restrict wood biodegradation. Results indicated a significant reduction in the wood mass loss when treated with all the phenolic compounds. Surprisingly, syringic and vanillic acids behaved ambivalently; at a lower concentration, the wood mass loss was increased, but it decreased as the concentrations were increased. In all four phenolic compounds, the inhibition of mass loss was dependent on the concentration of the compounds. After 120 days, the mass loss was only 31%, with 63% relative degradation of lignin and cellulose, and 74% of hemicellulose and wood anatomy, including silica bodies, were intact in those woodblocks treated with 1 mM benzoic acid. This study emphasizes the physicochemical and anatomical changes occurring in the oil palm wood during G. boninense colonization, and suggests that treating oil palm stumps with benzoic acid could be a solution to reducing the G. boninense inoculum pressure during replantation in a sustainable manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arthy Surendran
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick Wellesbourne, Warwick CV35 9EF, UK
- Correspondence: (A.S.); (Y.S.); (K.A.); Tel.: +60-3-9769-4135 (K.A.)
| | - Yasmeen Siddiqui
- Sustainable Agronomy and Crop Protection, Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (A.S.); (Y.S.); (K.A.); Tel.: +60-3-9769-4135 (K.A.)
| | - Khairulmazmi Ahmad
- Sustainable Agronomy and Crop Protection, Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (A.S.); (Y.S.); (K.A.); Tel.: +60-3-9769-4135 (K.A.)
| | - Rozi Fernanda
- Sustainable Agronomy and Crop Protection, Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia;
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Dhillon B, Hamelin RC, Rollins JA. Transcriptional profile of oil palm pathogen, Ganoderma boninense, reveals activation of lignin degradation machinery and possible evasion of host immune response. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:326. [PMID: 33952202 PMCID: PMC8097845 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07644-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The white-rot fungi in the genus Ganoderma interact with both living and dead angiosperm tree hosts. Two Ganoderma species, a North American taxon, G. zonatum and an Asian taxon, G. boninense, have primarily been found associated with live palm hosts. During the host plant colonization process, a massive transcriptional reorganization helps the fungus evade the host immune response and utilize plant cell wall polysaccharides. RESULTS A publicly available transcriptome of G. boninense - oil palm interaction was surveyed to profile transcripts that were differentially expressed in planta. Ten percent of the G. boninense transcript loci had altered expression as it colonized oil palm plants one-month post inoculation. Carbohydrate active enzymes (CAZymes), particularly those with a role in lignin degradation, and auxiliary enzymes that facilitate lignin modification, like cytochrome P450s and haloacid dehalogenases, were up-regulated in planta. Several lineage specific proteins and secreted proteins that lack known functional domains were also up-regulated in planta, but their role in the interaction could not be established. A slowdown in G. boninense respiration during the interaction can be inferred from the down-regulation of proteins involved in electron transport chain and mitochondrial biogenesis. Additionally, pathogenicity related genes and chitin degradation machinery were down-regulated during the interaction indicating G. boninense may be evading detection by the host immune system. CONCLUSIONS This analysis offers an overview of the dynamic processes at play in G. boninense - oil palm interaction and provides a framework to investigate biology of Ganoderma fungi across plantations and landscape.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Braham Dhillon
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center, Davie, FL, 33314, USA.
| | - Richard C Hamelin
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jeffrey A Rollins
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, 1453 Fifield Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611-0680, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Current strategies and perspectives in detection and control of basal stem rot of oil palm. Saudi J Biol Sci 2021; 28:2840-2849. [PMID: 34012325 PMCID: PMC8116965 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The rapid expansion of oil palm (OP) has led to its emergence as a commodity of strategic global importance. Palm oil is used extensively in food and as a precursor for biodiesel. The oil generates export earnings and bolsters the economy of many countries, particularly Indonesia and Malaysia. However, oil palms are prone to basal stem rot (BSR) caused by Ganoderma boninense which is the most threatening disease of OP. The current control measures for BSR management including cultural practices, mechanical and chemical treatment have not proved satisfactory. Alternative control measures to overcome the G. boninense problem are focused on the use of biological control agents and many potential bioagents were identified with little proven practical application. Planting OP varieties resistant to G. boninense could provide the ideal long-term solution to basal stem rot. The total resistance of palms to G. boninense has not yet been reported, and few examples of partial resistances have been observed. Importantly, basidiospores are now recognized as the method by which the disease is spread, and control methods require to be revaluated because of this phenomenon. Many methods developed to prevent the spread of the disease effectively are only tested at nursery levels and are only reported in national journals inhibiting the development of useful techniques globally. The initial procedures employed by the fungus to infect the OP require consideration in terms of the physiology of the growth of the fungus and its possible control. This review assesses critically the progress that has been made in BSR development and management in OP.
Collapse
|
15
|
Genome-Wide Characterization and Comparative Analysis of MYB Transcription Factors in Ganoderma Species. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2020; 10:2653-2660. [PMID: 32471942 PMCID: PMC7407476 DOI: 10.1534/g3.120.401372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Numerous studies in plants have shown the vital roles of MYB transcription factors in signal transduction, developmental regulation, biotic/abiotic stress responses and secondary metabolism regulation. However, less is known about the functions of MYBs in Ganoderma. In this study, five medicinal macrofungi of genus Ganoderma were subjected to a genome-wide comparative analysis of MYB genes. A total of 75 MYB genes were identified and classified into four types: 1R-MYBs (52), 2R-MYBs (19), 3R-MYBs (2) and 4R-MYBs (2). Gene structure analysis revealed varying exon numbers (3-14) and intron lengths (7-1058 bp), and noncanonical GC-AG introns were detected in G. lucidum and G. sinense. In a phylogenetic analysis, 69 out of 75 MYB genes were clustered into 15 subgroups, and both single-copy orthologous genes and duplicated genes were identified. The promoters of the MYB genes harbored multiple cis-elements, and specific genes were co-expressed with the G. lucidum MYB genes, indicating the potential roles of these MYB genes in stress response, development and metabolism. This comprehensive and systematic study of MYB family members provides a reference and solid foundation for further functional analysis of MYB genes in Ganoderma species.
Collapse
|