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Bicaldo IEC, Padilla KSAR, Tu TH, Chen WT, Mendoza-Pascual MU, Vicera CVB, de Leon JR, Poblete KN, Austria ES, Lopez MLD, Kobayashi Y, Shiah FK, Papa RDS, Okuda N, Wang PL, Lin LH. The methane-oxidizing microbial communities of three maar lakes in tropical monsoon Asia. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1410666. [PMID: 39044952 PMCID: PMC11263035 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1410666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) is a group of planktonic microorganisms that use methane as their primary source of cellular energy. For tropical lakes in monsoon Asia, there is currently a knowledge gap on MOB community diversity and the factors influencing their abundance. Herewith, we present a preliminary assessment of the MOB communities in three maar lakes in tropical monsoon Asia using Catalyzed Reporter Deposition, Fluorescence In-Situ Hybridization (CARD-FISH), 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, and pmoA gene sequencing. Correlation analysis between MOB abundances and lakes' physicochemical parameters following seasonal monsoon events were performed to explain observed spatial and temporal patterns in MOB diversity. The CARD-FISH analyses detected the three MOB types (I, II, and NC10) which aligned with the results from 16S rRNA amplicons and pmoA gene sequencing. Among community members based on 16S rRNA genes, Proteobacterial Type I MOB (e.g., Methylococcaceae and Methylomonadaceae), Proteobacterial Type II (Methylocystaceae), Verrucomicrobial (Methylacidiphilaceae), Methylomirabilota/NC10 (Methylomirabilaceae), and archaeal ANME-1a were found to be the dominant methane-oxidizers in three maar lakes. Analysis of microbial diversity and distribution revealed that the community compositions in Lake Yambo vary with the seasons and are more distinct during the stratified period. Temperature, DO, and pH were significantly and inversely linked with type I MOB and Methylomirabilota during stratification. Only MOB type I was influenced by monsoon changes. This research sought to establish a baseline for the diversity and ecology of planktonic MOB in tropical monsoon Asia to better comprehend their contribution to the CH4 cycle in tropical freshwater ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iona Eunice C. Bicaldo
- The Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
- Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
| | - Karol Sophia Agape R. Padilla
- The Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
- Philippine Genome Center, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines
- Department of Science and Technology, Science Education Institute, Taguig, Philippines
| | - Tzu-Hsuan Tu
- Department of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Oceanography, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wan Ting Chen
- Department of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Milette U. Mendoza-Pascual
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Science and Engineering, Ateneo Research Institute for Science and Engineering, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, Philippines
| | | | - Justine R. de Leon
- Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
| | | | | | - Mark Louie D. Lopez
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Yuki Kobayashi
- Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University, Shiga, Japan
| | - Fuh-Kwo Shiah
- Research Center for Environmental Changes, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Rey Donne S. Papa
- The Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
- Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
| | - Noboru Okuda
- Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University, Shiga, Japan
- Research Center for Inland Seas, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
- Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kamigamo Motoyama, Kita Ward, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Pei-Ling Wang
- Institute of Oceanography, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Research Center for Future Earth, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Li-Hung Lin
- Department of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Research Center for Future Earth, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Deng Y, Liang C, Zhu X, Zhu X, Chen L, Pan H, Xun F, Tao Y, Xing P. Methylomonadaceae was the active and dominant methanotroph in Tibet lake sediments. ISME COMMUNICATIONS 2024; 4:ycae032. [PMID: 38524764 PMCID: PMC10960969 DOI: 10.1093/ismeco/ycae032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Methane (CH4), an important greenhouse gas, significantly impacts the local and global climate. Our study focused on the composition and activity of methanotrophs residing in the lakes on the Tibetan Plateau, a hotspot for climate change research. Based on the field survey, the family Methylomonadaceae had a much higher relative abundance in freshwater lakes than in brackish and saline lakes, accounting for ~92% of total aerobic methanotrophs. Using the microcosm sediment incubation with 13CH4 followed by high throughput sequencing and metagenomic analysis, we further demonstrated that the family Methylomonadaceae was actively oxidizing CH4. Moreover, various methylotrophs, such as the genera Methylotenera and Methylophilus, were detected in the 13C-labeled DNAs, which suggested their participation in CH4-carbon sequential assimilation. The presence of CH4 metabolism, such as the tetrahydromethanopterin and the ribulose monophosphate pathways, was identified in the metagenome-assembled genomes of the family Methylomonadaceae. Furthermore, they had the potential to adapt to oxygen-deficient conditions and utilize multiple electron acceptors, such as metal oxides (Fe3+), nitrate, and nitrite, for survival in the Tibet lakes. Our findings highlighted the predominance of Methylomonadaceae and the associated microbes as active CH4 consumers, potentially regulating the CH4 emissions in the Tibet freshwater lakes. These insights contributed to understanding the plateau carbon cycle and emphasized the significance of methanotrophs in mitigating climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongcui Deng
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chulin Liang
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaomeng Zhu
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xinshu Zhu
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lei Chen
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hongan Pan
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fan Xun
- State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, Jiangsu, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China
| | - Ye Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, Jiangsu, China
| | - Peng Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, Jiangsu, China
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Pozo-Solar F, Cornejo-D´Ottone M, Orellana R, Yepsen DV, Bassi N, Salcedo-Castro J, Aguilar-Muñoz P, Molina V. Dissolved greenhouse gases and benthic microbial communities in coastal wetlands of the Chilean coast semiarid region. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0271208. [PMID: 36174070 PMCID: PMC9522034 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Coastal wetlands are ecosystems associated with intense carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) recycling, modulated by salinity and other environmental factors that influence the microbial community involved in greenhouse gases production and consumption. In this study, we evaluated the influence of environmental factors on GHG concentration and benthic microbial community composition in coastal wetlands along the coast of the semiarid region. Wetlands were situated in landscapes along a south-north gradient of higher aridity and lower anthropogenic impact. Our results indicate that wetlands have a latitudinal variability associated with higher organic matter content at the north, especially in summer, and higher nutrient concentration at the south, predominantly in winter. During our sampling, wetlands were characterized by positive CO2 μM and CH4 nM excess, and a shift of N2O nM excess from negative to positive values from the north to the south. Benthic microbial communities were taxonomically diverse with > 60 phyla, especially in low frequency taxa. Highly abundant bacterial phyla were classified into Gammaproteobacteria (Betaproteobacteria order), Alphaproteobacteria and Deltaproteobacteria, including key functional groups such as nitrifying and methanotrophic bacteria. Generalized additive model (GAM) indicated that conductivity accounted for the larger variability of CH4 and CO2, but the predictions of CH4 and CO2 concentration were improved when latitude and pH concentration were included. Nitrate and latitude were the best predictors to account for the changes in the dissolved N2O distribution. Structural equation modeling (SEM), illustrated how the environment significantly influences functional microbial groups (nitrifiers and methane oxidizers) and their resulting effect on GHG distribution. Our results highlight the combined role of salinity and substrates of key functional microbial groups with metabolisms associated with both carbon and nitrogen, influencing dissolved GHG and their potential exchange in natural and anthropogenically impacted coastal wetlands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Pozo-Solar
- Programa de Doctorado Interdisciplinario en Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
- Departamento de Ciencias y Geografía, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
- HUB Ambiental UPLA, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Marcela Cornejo-D´Ottone
- Escuela de Ciencias del Mar and Instituto Milenio de Oceanografía, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Roberto Orellana
- Departamento de Ciencias y Geografía, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
- HUB Ambiental UPLA, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Daniela V. Yepsen
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias con Mención en Manejo de Recursos Acuáticos Renovables (MaReA), Universidad de Concepción, Barrio Universitario s/n, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Nickolas Bassi
- Departamento de Geografía, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Avenida Leopoldo Carvallo Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Julio Salcedo-Castro
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Sino-Australian Research Consortium for Coastal Management, School of Science, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia
| | | | - Verónica Molina
- Departamento de Ciencias y Geografía, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
- HUB Ambiental UPLA, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Oceanográfica COPAS COASTAL, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- * E-mail:
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Rani V, Prasanna R, Kaushik R. Prospecting the significance of methane-utilizing bacteria in agriculture. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 38:176. [PMID: 35922575 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-022-03331-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Microorganisms act as both the source and sink of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, thus making a significant contribution to the environment as an important driver of climate change. The rhizosphere and phyllosphere of plants growing in natural (mangroves) and artificial wetlands (flooded agricultural ecosystems) harbor methane-utilizing bacteria that oxidize methane at the source and reduce its net flux. For several decades, microorganisms have been used as biofertilizers to promote plant growth. However, now their role in reducing net methane flux, especially from flooded agricultural ecosystems is gaining momentum globally. Research in this context has mainly focused on taxonomic aspects related to methanotrophy among diverse bacterial genera, and environmental factors that govern methane utilization in natural and artificial wetland ecosystems. In the last few decades, concerted efforts have been made to develop multifunctional microbial inoculants that can oxidize methane and alleviate greenhouse gas emissions, as well as promote plant growth. In this context, combinations of taxonomic groups commonly found in rice paddies and those used as biofertilizers are being explored. This review deals with methanotrophy among diverse bacterial domains, factors influencing methane-utilizing ability, and explores the potential of novel methane-utilizing microbial consortia with plant growth-promoting traits in flooded ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijaya Rani
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Radha Prasanna
- Division of Microbiology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Rajeev Kaushik
- Division of Microbiology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India.
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Bussmann I, Horn F, Hoppert M, Klings KW, Saborowski A, Warnstedt J, Liebner S. Methylomonas albis sp. nov. and Methylomonas fluvii sp. nov.: Two cold-adapted methanotrophs from the river Elbe and emended description of the species Methylovulum psychrotolerans. Syst Appl Microbiol 2021; 44:126248. [PMID: 34624710 DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2021.126248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Three strains of methanotrophic bacteria (EbAT, EbBT and Eb1) were isolated from the River Elbe, Germany. These Gram-negative, rod-shaped or coccoid cells contain intracytoplasmic membranes perpendicular to the cell surface. Colonies and liquid cultures appeared bright-pink. The major cellular fatty acids were 12:0 and 14:0, in addition in Eb1 the FA 16:1ω5t was also dominant. Methane and methanol were utilized as sole carbon sources by EbBT and Eb1, while EbAT could not use methanol. All strains oxidize methane using the particulate methane monooxygenase. Both strains contain an additional soluble methane monooxygenase. The strains grew optimally at 15-25 °C and at pH 6 and 8. Based on 16S rRNA gene analysis recovered from the full genome, the phylogenetic position of EbAT is robustly outside any species clade with its closest relatives being Methylomonas sp. MK1 (98.24%) and Methylomonas sp. 11b (98.11%). Its closest type strain is Methylomonas methanica NCIMB11130 (97.91%). The 16S rRNA genes of EbBT are highly similar to Methylomonas methanica strains with Methylomonas methanica R-45371 as the closest relative (99.87% sequence identity). However, average nucleotide identity (ANI) and digital DNA-DNA-hybridization (dDDH) values reveal it as distinct species. The DNA G + C contents were 51.07 mol% and 51.5 mol% for EbAT and EbBT, and 50.7 mol% for Eb1, respectively. Strains EbAT and EbBT are representing two novel species within the genus Methylomonas. For strain EbAT we propose the name Methylomonas albis sp. nov (LMG 29958, JCM 32282) and for EbBT, we propose the name Methylomonas fluvii sp. nov (LMG 29959, JCM 32283). Eco-physiological descriptions for both strains are provided. Strain Eb1 (LMG 30323, JCM 32281) is a member of the species Methylovulum psychrotolerans. This genus is so far only represented by two isolates but Eb1 is the first isolate from a temperate environment; so, an emended description of the species is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingeborg Bussmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Marine Station Helgoland, Kurpromenade 201, 27498 Helgoland, Germany
| | - Fabian Horn
- GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section Geomicrobiology, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Michael Hoppert
- University of Göttingen, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Grisebachstr. 8, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Karl-Walter Klings
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Marine Station Helgoland, Kurpromenade 201, 27498 Helgoland, Germany
| | - Anke Saborowski
- GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section Geomicrobiology, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Julia Warnstedt
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Marine Station Helgoland, Kurpromenade 201, 27498 Helgoland, Germany
| | - Susanne Liebner
- GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section Geomicrobiology, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany; University of Potsdam, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, 14469 Potsdam, Germany
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Gao CH, Zhang S, Ding QS, Wei MY, Li H, Li J, Wen C, Gao GF, Liu Y, Zhou JJ, Zhang JY, You YP, Zheng HL. Source or sink? A study on the methane flux from mangroves stems in Zhangjiang estuary, southeast coast of China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 788:147782. [PMID: 34134386 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Mangrove ecosystems are an important component of "blue carbon". However, it is not clear whether the stems play roles in the CH4 budget of mangrove ecosystems. This study investigated the CH4 emission from mangrove stems and its potential driving factors. We set up six sample plots in the Zhangjiang Estuary National Mangrove Nature Reserve, where Kandelia obovata, Avicennia marina and Aegiceras corniculata are the main mangrove tree species. Soil properties such as total carbon content, redox potential and salinity were determined in each plot. The dynamic chamber method was used to measure mangrove stems and soil CH4 fluxes. Combined field survey results with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of soil properties, we divided the six plots into two sites (S1 and S2) to perform statistical analyses of stem CH4 fluxes. Then the CH4 fluxes from mangrove tree stems and soil were further scaled up to the ecosystem level through the mapping model. Under different backgrounds of soil properties, salinity and microbial biomass carbon were the main factors modified soil CH4 fluxes in the two sites, and further affected the stem CH4 fluxes of mangroves. The soil of both sites are sources of CH4, and the soil CH4 emission of S2 was about twice higher than that of S1. Results of upscaling model showed that mangrove stems in S1 were CH4 sinks with -105.65 g d-1. But stems in S2 were CH4 sources around 1448.24 g d-1. Taken together, our results suggested that CH4 emission from mangrove soils closely depends on soils properties. And mangrove stems were found to act as both CH4 sources and CH4 sinks depend on soil CH4 production. Therefore, when calculating the CH4 budget of the mangrove ecosystem, the contribution of mangrove plant stems cannot be ignored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Hao Gao
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Shan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Qian-Su Ding
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Ming-Yue Wei
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Huan Li
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Jing Li
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Chen Wen
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Gui-Feng Gao
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China; Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Soil Science, State Key Laboratory of Soil & Sustainable Agriculture, 71 East Beijing Rd, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, PR China
| | - Yu Liu
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Jia-Jie Zhou
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Jing-Ya Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Yan-Ping You
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China
| | - Hai-Lei Zheng
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, PR China.
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Composition and Activity of N2-Fixing Microorganisms in Mangrove Forest Soils. FORESTS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/f12070822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mangrove forests are considered to be a highly productive ecosystem, but they are also generally nitrogen (N)-limited. Thus, soil N2 fixation can be important for the stability of both mangrove ecosystem functions and upland N supply. This study evaluates the N2 fixation activity and composition of relevant microorganisms in two coastal mangrove forests—the Guandu mangrove in an upstream estuary and the Bali mangrove in a downstream estuary—using the acetylene reduction method, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and next-generation sequencing. The results demonstrated that ambient nitrogenase activity was higher in downstream mangrove forests (13.2–15.6 nmol h−1 g−1 soil) than in upstream mangrove forests (0.2–1.4 nmol h−1 g−1 soil). However, both the maximum potential nitrogenase activity and nitrogenase gene (nifH gene) copy number were found to be higher in the upstream than in the downstream mangrove forests, implying that the nitrogenase activity and diazotrophic abundance may not necessarily be positively correlated. In addition, amended MoO4 (which inhibits the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in N2-fixation) yielded low nitrogenase activity, and sulfate-reducing bacteria made up 20–50% of the relative diazotrophic abundance in the mangrove forests, indicating that these bacteria might be the major active diazotrophs in this environment.
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