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Wang Y, Liu J, Sun W, Zhou Y, Wang X, Hu Q, Wen Z, Yao J, Li H. Oxygenation of Phenols with Water as the Oxygen Source and Oxoammonium Salt as the Oxidant. J Org Chem 2024; 89:2440-2447. [PMID: 38306296 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.3c02448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
Aromatic C-H oxygenation is important in both industrial production and organic synthesis. Here we report a metal-free approach for phenol oxygenation with water as the oxygen source using oxoammonium salts as the renewable oxidant. Employing this protocol, various alkyl-substituted phenols were converted into benzoquinones in yields of 59-98%. On the basis of 18O-labeling and kinetic studies, the hydroxy-oxoammonium adduct was proposed to attack the aromatic ring similarly to electrophilic aromatic substitution. We suppose that the findings described here not only provide an efficient and highly selective protocol for aromatic C-H oxygenation but also may encourage further developments of possible transition-metal-free catalytic methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongtao Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, ZJU-NHU United R&D Center, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jiaxin Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wenjing Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yujia Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xinyu Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Qixuan Hu
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Zeyu Wen
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jia Yao
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, ZJU-NHU United R&D Center, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Haoran Li
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, ZJU-NHU United R&D Center, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
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Smith TR, Tay A, Koprivnikar J. Effects of insect host chemical secretions on the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae. J Helminthol 2023; 97:e63. [PMID: 37522182 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x23000469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Given the threat presented by parasites and pathogens, insects employ various defences to protect themselves against infection, including chemical secretions. The red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum releases a secretion containing the benzoquinones methyl-1,4-benzoquinone (MBQ) and ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone (EBQ) into the environment. These compounds have known antimicrobial effects; however, their role in defence against macroparasites is not known. Entomopathogenic nematodes, such as Steinernema carpocapsae, present a serious threat to insects, with successful infection leading to death. Thus, quinone-containing secretions may also aid in host defence. We tested how exposure to the individual components of this quinone secretion, as well as a mix at naturally-occurring proportions, affected the survival and thrashing behaviour of S. carpocapsae, as well as their virulence to a model host (Galleria mellonella). Exposure to high concentrations of MBQ and EBQ, as well as the quinone mix, significantly increased nematode death but did not consistently reduce thrashing, which would otherwise be expected given their toxicity. Rather, quinones may act as a host cue to S. carpocapsae by triggering increased activity. We found that exposure to quinones for 24 or 72 hours did not reduce nematode virulence, and surviving nematodes remained infective after non-lethal exposure. Our results indicate that quinone secretions likely serve as a defence against multiple infection threats by reducing S. carpocapsae survival, but further research is required to contextualize their roles by testing against other nematodes, as well as other helminths using insects as hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - A Tay
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - J Koprivnikar
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3, Canada
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Raspotnig G, Hüfner A, Bodner M, Blesl J, Schaider M, Escalante I, Kunert O. Polymorphic scent gland secretions in Nelima harvestmen: “Sclerosomatid compounds” but different chemical lineages. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.993368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The scent glands of harvestmen (Opiliones) produce secretions of taxon-specific composition. One class of compounds, assumed to be a key group in opilionid chemosystematics and prevalent among sclerosomatid Eupnoi, was termed “sclerosomatid compounds” (SCs). Known compounds of this group comprise acyclic 4-methyl-branched ethyl-ketones and -alcohols as well as 2,4-dimethyl-branched primary alcohols and aldehydes, originally described from several species of North American Leiobuninae. We analyzed the scent gland secretions of Nelima ssp. (Sclerosomatidae, Leiobuninae) from two continents by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, NMR, stereoselective synthesis, and chiral chromatography. We found a surprising chemical dichotomy: while North American N. paesserli produced typical acyclic SCs such as (E)-4-methyl-4-hexen-3-one, the secretions of European Nelima species exhibited a mixture of aromatic and aliphatic compounds, namely (R)-2-methyl-1-phenyl-pentan-3-one (MPP), 4-phenyl-2-butanone (PB), 2-phenylacetamide (PA), as well as (2R,4R)-2,4-dimethylhexanoic acid (DHA), all of which are new for the secretions of harvestmen. Remarkably, in N. sempronii, the secretions of juveniles (containing PB) differed from the secretions of adults (containing MPP and DHA). Though the chemistry of European Nelima species clearly diverged at first sight, all compounds detected either possess specific chemical motifs that allow an assignment to the class of SCs or appear to be biochemically/ontogenetically connected to SC-components. Thus, we here add novel compounds to the pool of SCs along with an extension of the definition of SCs to include aromatic compounds with SC-motifs. Furthermore, we describe a first case of juvenile-adult polymorphism for the exocrine secretions of harvestmen and provide a scheme of how secretions are regenerated.
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4
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Raspotnig G, Bodner M, Blesl J, Viquez C. The scent gland chemistry of Gagrellinae (Opiliones, Sclerosomatidae): evidence for sequestration of myrmicacin in a species of Prionostemma. CHEMOECOLOGY 2022; 32:139-146. [PMID: 36164465 PMCID: PMC9499920 DOI: 10.1007/s00049-022-00373-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The scent gland secretion of an undetermined species of Prionostemma from Costa Rica was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and shown to consist of medium-chain carboxylic acids (mainly octanoic acid) and a ß-hydroxy-carboxylic acid, eventually identified as myrmicacin (= (R)-3-hydroxydecanoic acid). While scent gland secretions in harvestmen have traditionally been considered to be products of de novo synthesis, we here provide evidence for the unusual case of sequestration-derived scent gland constituents: at least myrmicacin appears to be sequestered from leaf-cutter ants that constitute a part of the prey of the Prionostemma-species herein investigated. This is the first report on the scent gland chemistry of the sclerosomatid subfamily Gagrellinae as well as on a possible sequestration mechanism in harvestmen.
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Gueratto C, Benedetti A, Pinto-da-Rocha R. Phylogenetic relationships of the genus Mischonyx Bertkau, 1880, with taxonomic changes and three new species description (Opiliones: Gonyleptidae). PeerJ 2021; 9:e11682. [PMID: 34692238 PMCID: PMC8485841 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The type species of Mischonyx Bertkau 1880, Mischonyx squalidus, was described based on a juvenile. The holotype is lost. Based on a revision of publications, the genus includes 12 species, all in Brazil. The objectives of this research are: to propose a phylogenetic hypothesis for Mischonyx based on Total Evidence (TE); propose taxonomic changes based on the phylogeny; and analyze the phylogenetic hypothesis biogeographically. Using the exemplar approach to taxon selection, we studied 54 specimens, 15 outgroups and 39 ingroup taxa using seven molecular markers (28S, 12S and 16S ribosomal genes, citochrome oxidase subunit I gene, carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase gene, internal transcribed spacer subunit 2 and histone H3 gene), totaling 3,742 bp, and 128 morphological characters. We analyzed the dataset under three optimality criteria: Maximum likelihood (ML), Maximum parsimony (MP) and Bayesian. We discuss the transformation of character states throughout the phylogeny, the different phylogenetic hypotheses using different datasets and the congruence of evidence between the clades obtained by the phylogenetic analysis and the biogeographical hypothesis for the Atlantic Forest areas of endemism. We estimate that Mischonyx clade diverged 50.53 Mya, and inside the genus there are two major clades. One of them cointains species from Paraná, Santa Catarina, South of São Paulo and Serra do Mar Areas of Endemism and the other has species from Espinhaço, Bocaina, South coast of Rio de Janeiro and Serra dos Órgãos Areas of Endemism. The first split inside these two clades occurred at 48.94 and 44.80 Mya, respectively. We describe three new species from Brazil: Mischonyx minimus sp. nov. (type locality: Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro), Mischonyx intervalensis sp. nov. (type locality: Ribeirão Grande, São Paulo) and Mischonyx tinguaensis sp. nov (type locality: Nova Iguaçu, Rio de Janeiro). The genus Urodiabunus Mello-Leitão, 1935 is considered a junior synonym of Mischonyx. Weyhia spinifrons Mello-Leitão, 1923; Weyhia clavifemur Mello-Leitão, 1927 and Geraeocormobius reitzi Vasconcelos, 2005 were transferred to Mischonyx. Mischonyx cuspidatus (Roewer, 1913) is a junior synonym of M. squalidus Bertkau, 1880. In the results of the phylogenetic analyses, Gonyleptes antiquus Mello-Leitão, 1934 (former Mischonyx antiquus) does not belong in Mischonyx and its original combination is re-established. As it is now defined, Mischonyx comprises 17 species, with seven new combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caio Gueratto
- Departamento de Zoologia/Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alípio Benedetti
- Departamento de Zoologia/Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Centro Universitário Metodista Izabela Hendrix, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Pinto-da-Rocha
- Departamento de Zoologia/Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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6
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Weng YM, Francoeur CB, Currie CR, Kavanaugh DH, Schoville SD. A high-quality carabid genome assembly provides insights into beetle genome evolution and cold adaptation. Mol Ecol Resour 2021; 21:2145-2165. [PMID: 33938156 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.13409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The hyperdiverse order Coleoptera comprises a staggering ~25% of known species on Earth. Despite recent breakthroughs in next generation sequencing, there remains a limited representation of beetle diversity in assembled genomes. Most notably, the ground beetle family Carabidae, comprising more than 40,000 described species, has not been studied in a comparative genomics framework using whole genome data. Here we generate a high-quality genome assembly for Nebria riversi, to examine sources of novelty in the genome evolution of beetles, as well as genetic changes associated with specialization to high-elevation alpine habitats. In particular, this genome resource provides a foundation for expanding comparative molecular research into mechanisms of insect cold adaptation. Comparison to other beetles shows a strong signature of genome compaction, with N. riversi possessing a relatively small genome (~147 Mb) compared to other beetles, with associated reductions in repeat element content and intron length. Small genome size is not, however, associated with fewer protein-coding genes, and an analysis of gene family diversity shows significant expansions of genes associated with cellular membranes and membrane transport, as well as protein phosphorylation and muscle filament structure. Finally, our genomic analyses show that these high-elevation beetles have endosymbiotic Spiroplasma, with several metabolic pathways (e.g., propanoate biosynthesis) that might complement N. riversi, although its role as a beneficial symbiont or as a reproductive parasite remains equivocal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ming Weng
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Charlotte B Francoeur
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Cameron R Currie
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - David H Kavanaugh
- Department of Entomology, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sean D Schoville
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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Rajani P, Rajasekaran C, Vasanthakumari MM, Olsson SB, Ravikanth G, Uma Shaanker R. Inhibition of plant pathogenic fungi by endophytic Trichoderma spp. through mycoparasitism and volatile organic compounds. Microbiol Res 2020; 242:126595. [PMID: 33017769 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2020.126595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Antagonism of plant pathogenic fungi by endophytic fungi is a well-known phenomenon. In plate assays, the antagonism could be due to mycoparasitism, competition for space or antibiosis, involving a chemical diffusate, or a volatile organic compound (VOC). In this study, we demonstrate that besides mycoparasitism, VOCs play a major role in antagonism of pathogenic fungi by four endophytic fungi belonging to the genus Trichoderma. Using a double-plate assay, we show that all the four endophytic Trichoderma species significantly inhibited mycelial growth of three of the four pathogens, (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum-TSS, Sclerotium rolfsii-CSR and Fusarium oxysporum-CFO), while that of Macrophomina phaseolina-CMP was not affected. GC-MS analysis of the pure cultures of one of the endophytic fungi studied, namely, Trichoderma longibrachiatum strain 2 (Acc. No. MK751758) and the pathogens, F. oxysporum-CFO and M. phaseolina-CMP revealed the presence of several VOCs including hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, esters, acids, ethers and different classes of terpenes. In mixed double plates, where the endophyte was grown along with either of the two plant pathogens, F. oxysporum-CFO or M. phaseolina-CMP, there was an induction of a number of new VOCs that were not detected in the pure cultures of either the endophyte or the pathogens. Several of these new VOCs are reported to possess antifungal and cytotoxic activity. We discuss these results and highlight the importance of such interactions in endophyte-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Rajani
- School of Ecology and Conservation, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, 560065, India; School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, India
| | - C Rajasekaran
- School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, India.
| | - M M Vasanthakumari
- School of Ecology and Conservation, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, 560065, India
| | - Shannon B Olsson
- Naturalist-Inspired Chemical Ecology, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, 560065, India
| | - G Ravikanth
- Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur Post, Bengaluru, 560064, India
| | - R Uma Shaanker
- School of Ecology and Conservation, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, 560065, India; Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur Post, Bengaluru, 560064, India; Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru, 560065, India
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Brückner A, Kaltenpoth M, Heethoff M. De novo biosynthesis of simple aromatic compounds by an arthropod ( Archegozetes longisetosus). Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201429. [PMID: 32873199 PMCID: PMC7542773 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to synthesize simple aromatic compounds is well known from bacteria, fungi and plants, which all share an exclusive biosynthetic route—the shikimic acid pathway. Some of these organisms further evolved the polyketide pathway to form core benzenoids via a head-to-tail condensation of polyketide precursors. Arthropods supposedly lack the ability to synthesize aromatics and instead rely on aromatic amino acids acquired from food, or from symbiotic microorganisms. The few studies purportedly showing de novo biosynthesis via the polyketide synthase (PKS) pathway failed to exclude endosymbiotic bacteria, so their results are inconclusive. We investigated the biosynthesis of aromatic compounds in defence secretions of the oribatid mite Archegozetes longisetosus. Exposing the mites to a diet containing high concentrations of antibiotics removed potential microbial partners but did not affect the production of defensive benzenoids. To gain insights into benzenoid biosynthesis, we fed mites with stable-isotope labelled precursors and monitored incorporation with mass spectrometry. Glucose, malonic acid and acetate, but not phenylalanine, were incorporated into the benzenoids, further evidencing autogenous biosynthesis. Whole-transcriptome sequencing with hidden Markov model profile search of protein domain families and subsequent phylogenetic analysis revealed a putative PKS domain similar to an actinobacterial PKS, possibly indicating a horizontal gene transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Brückner
- Technische Universität Darmstadt, Ecological Networks, Schnittspahnstraße 3, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.,California Institute of Technology, Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Martin Kaltenpoth
- Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution, Johannes Gutenberg University, Johann-Joachim-Becher-Weg 13, 55128 Mainz, Germany.,Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Heethoff
- Technische Universität Darmstadt, Ecological Networks, Schnittspahnstraße 3, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
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Biosynthetic origin of benzoquinones in the explosive discharge of the bombardier beetle Brachinus elongatulus. Naturwissenschaften 2020; 107:26. [PMID: 32548793 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-020-01683-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Bombardier beetles are well-known for their remarkable defensive mechanism. Their defensive apparatus consists of two compartments known as the reservoir and the reaction chamber. When challenged, muscles surrounding the reservoir contract sending chemical precursors into the reaction chamber where they mix with enzymes resulting in an explosive discharge of a hot noxious chemical spray containing two major quinones: 1,4-benzoquinone and 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone (toluquinone). Previously, it has been speculated that the biosynthesis of all benzoquinones originates from one core precursor, 1,4-hydroquinone. Careful ligation of the base of the reservoir chamber enabled us to prevent the explosive reaction and sample untransformed reservoir fluid, which showed that it accumulates significant quantities of 1,4-hydroquinone and 2-methyl-1,4-hydroquinone. We investigated the biosynthetic mechanisms leading to quinone formation by injecting or feeding Brachinus elongatulus beetles with stable-isotope-labeled precursors. Chemical analysis of defensive secretion samples obtained from 1,4-hydroquinone-d6-administered beetles demonstrated that it underwent conversion specifically to 1,4-benzoquinone. Analogously, results from m-cresol-d8 injected or fed beetles confirmed that m-cresol is metabolized to 2-methyl-1,4-hydroquinone, which is then oxidized to 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone in the hot spray. Our results refute the previous claim that 1,4-hydroquinone is the precursor of all substituted benzoquinones in bombardier beetles and reveal that they are biosynthetic products of two independent pathways. Most likely, the aforementioned biosynthetic channel of hydroxylation of appropriate phenolic precursors and subsequent oxidation is not restricted to bombardier beetles; it could well be a general pathway that leads to the formation of all congeners of benzoquinones, one of the most widely distributed groups of defensive compounds in arthropods. Graphical abstract.
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Brückner A, Parker J. Molecular evolution of gland cell types and chemical interactions in animals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 223:223/Suppl_1/jeb211938. [PMID: 32034048 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.211938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Across the Metazoa, the emergence of new ecological interactions has been enabled by the repeated evolution of exocrine glands. Specialized glands have arisen recurrently and with great frequency, even in single genera or species, transforming how animals interact with their environment through trophic resource exploitation, pheromonal communication, chemical defense and parental care. The widespread convergent evolution of animal glands implies that exocrine secretory cells are a hotspot of metazoan cell type innovation. Each evolutionary origin of a novel gland involves a process of 'gland cell type assembly': the stitching together of unique biosynthesis pathways; coordinated changes in secretory systems to enable efficient chemical release; and transcriptional deployment of these machineries into cells constituting the gland. This molecular evolutionary process influences what types of compound a given species is capable of secreting, and, consequently, the kinds of ecological interactions that species can display. Here, we discuss what is known about the evolutionary assembly of gland cell types and propose a framework for how it may happen. We posit the existence of 'terminal selector' transcription factors that program gland function via regulatory recruitment of biosynthetic enzymes and secretory proteins. We suggest ancestral enzymes are initially co-opted into the novel gland, fostering pleiotropic conflict that drives enzyme duplication. This process has yielded the observed pattern of modular, gland-specific biosynthesis pathways optimized for manufacturing specific secretions. We anticipate that single-cell technologies and gene editing methods applicable in diverse species will transform the study of animal chemical interactions, revealing how gland cell types are assembled and functionally configured at a molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Brückner
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Joseph Parker
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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11
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Pagoti GF, Portela E, Campanha JS, Dias JM, Willemart RH. On the function of the spoon-shaped pedipalps of harvestmen in the family Cosmetidae (Opiliones, Laniatores). J NAT HIST 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1692086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Ferreira Pagoti
- Laboratório de Ecologia Sensorial e Comportamento de Artrópodes, Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Erika Portela
- Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Jessica Silva Campanha
- Laboratório de Ecologia Sensorial e Comportamento de Artrópodes, Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jessica Morais Dias
- Laboratório de Ecologia Sensorial e Comportamento de Artrópodes, Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Hirata Willemart
- Laboratório de Ecologia Sensorial e Comportamento de Artrópodes, Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Evolução, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Campus Diadema, São Paulo, Brazil
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Kahn PC, Cao DD, Burns M, Boyer SL. Nuptial gift chemistry reveals convergent evolution correlated with antagonism in mating systems of harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones). Ecol Evol 2018; 8:7103-7110. [PMID: 30214716 PMCID: PMC6131725 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuptial gifts are material donations given from male to female before or during copulation and are subject to sexual selection in a wide variety of taxa. The harvestman genus Leiobunum has emerged as a model system for understanding the evolution of reproductive morphology and behavior, as transitions between solicitous and antagonistic modes of courtship have occurred multiple times within the lineage and are correlated with convergence in genital morphology. We analyzed the free amino acid content of nuptial gift secretions from five species of Leiobunum using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Multivariate analysis of the free amino acid profiles revealed that, rather than clustering based on phylogenetic relationships, nuptial gift chemical composition was better predicted by genital morphology and behavior, suggesting that convergent evolution has acted on the chemical composition of the nuptial gift. In addition, we found that, species with solicitous courtship produce gifts consisting of a 19% larger proportion of essential amino acids as compared to those with more antagonistic courtship interactions. This work represents the first comparative study of nuptial gift chemistry within a phylogenetic framework in any animal group and as such contributes to our understanding of the evolution of reproductive diversity and the participant role of nuptial gift chemistry in mating system transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dennis D. Cao
- Chemistry DepartmentMacalester CollegeSt. PaulMinnesota
| | - Mercedes Burns
- Biology DepartmentSan Diego State UniversitySan DiegoCalifornia
- Present address:
Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of MarylandBaltimore CountyBaltimoreMaryland
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Rodriguez J, Jones TH, Sierwald P, Marek PE, Shear WA, Brewer MS, Kocot KM, Bond JE. Step-wise evolution of complex chemical defenses in millipedes: a phylogenomic approach. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3209. [PMID: 29453332 PMCID: PMC5816663 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19996-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
With fossil representatives from the Silurian capable of respiring atmospheric oxygen, millipedes are among the oldest terrestrial animals, and likely the first to acquire diverse and complex chemical defenses against predators. Exploring the origin of complex adaptive traits is critical for understanding the evolution of Earth's biological complexity, and chemical defense evolution serves as an ideal study system. The classic explanation for the evolution of complexity is by gradual increase from simple to complex, passing through intermediate "stepping stone" states. Here we present the first phylogenetic-based study of the evolution of complex chemical defenses in millipedes by generating the largest genomic-based phylogenetic dataset ever assembled for the group. Our phylogenomic results demonstrate that chemical complexity shows a clear pattern of escalation through time. New pathways are added in a stepwise pattern, leading to greater chemical complexity, independently in a number of derived lineages. This complexity gradually increased through time, leading to the advent of three distantly related chemically complex evolutionary lineages, each uniquely characteristic of each of the respective millipede groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanita Rodriguez
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
- CSIRO, Australian National Insect Collection, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Petra Sierwald
- Zoology Department, The Field Museum, Chicago, IL, 60605, USA
| | - Paul E Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - William A Shear
- Biology Department, Hampden-Sydney College, Farmville, VA, 23943, USA
| | - Michael S Brewer
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858, USA
| | - Kevin M Kocot
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA
| | - Jason E Bond
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
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14
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Raspotnig G, Schaider M, Föttinger P, Schönhofer A. A Model for Phylogenetic Chemosystematics: Evolutionary History of Quinones in the Scent Gland Secretions of Harvestmen. Front Ecol Evol 2017. [PMID: 29527526 PMCID: PMC5844456 DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2017.00139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
By the possession of unique exocrine scent glands, Opiliones (harvestmen) arise as a perfect model for studies on the evolutionary history of secretion chemistry. Among gland compounds of harvestmen, it is the quinones that represent recurring elements across the secretions of all suborders. Reliable data on quinone-distribution, however, is only known for Laniatores (benzoquinones) and Cyphophthalmi (naphthoquinones). We here unraveled the quinone-distribution across scent gland secretions of the third large harvestman suborder, the Palpatores (= Eu- and Dyspnoi): Naphthoquinones were found in phalangiid Eupnoi across all subfamilies as well as in nemastomatid (and at least one ischyropsalid) Dyspnoi. Benzoquinones (1,4-benzoquinone) were restricted to a small entity within Eupnoi, namely platybunine Phalangiidae, probably misplaced Gyantinae (currently Sclerosomatidae) and Amilenus (incertae sedis). Our findings, combined with data from Laniatores and Cyphophthalmi, allow evaluation of a comprehensive chemosystematic model for Opiliones for the first time. Evolutionary scenarios imply naphthoquinones as scent gland compounds of common ancestry, having evolved in an early harvestman ancestor and present in cyphophthalmids and palpatoreans, but lost in laniatoreans. Benzoquinones evolved later and independently at least twice: once in the secretions of gonyleptoid Laniatores (alkylated benzoquinones), and a second time in a lineage of phalangiid Eupnoi (1,4-benzoquinone).
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, University Children's Hospital, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Petra Föttinger
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, University Children's Hospital, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Axel Schönhofer
- Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
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15
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Makarov SE, Bodner M, Reineke D, Vujisić LV, Todosijević MM, Antić DŽ, Vagalinski B, Lučić LR, Mitić BM, Mitov P, Anđelković BD, Lucić SP, Vajs V, Tomić VT, Raspotnig G. Chemical Ecology of Cave-Dwelling Millipedes: Defensive Secretions of the Typhloiulini (Diplopoda, Julida, Julidae). J Chem Ecol 2017; 43:317-326. [PMID: 28303527 PMCID: PMC5399059 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-017-0832-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Cave animals live under highly constant ecological conditions and in permanent darkness, and many evolutionary adaptations of cave-dwellers have been triggered by their specific environment. A similar "cave effect" leading to pronounced chemical interactions under such conditions may be assumed, but the chemoecology of troglobionts is mostly unknown. We investigated the defensive chemistry of a largely cave-dwelling julid group, the controversial tribe "Typhloiulini", and we included some cave-dwelling and some endogean representatives. While chemical defense in juliform diplopods is known to be highly uniform, and mainly based on methyl- and methoxy-substituted benzoquinones, the defensive secretions of typhloiulines contained ethyl-benzoquinones and related compounds. Interestingly, ethyl-benzoquinones were found in some, but not all cave-dwelling typhloiulines, and some non-cave dwellers also contained these compounds. On the other hand, ethyl-benzoquinones were not detected in troglobiont nor in endogean typhloiuline outgroups. In order to explain the taxonomic pattern of ethyl-benzoquinone occurrence, and to unravel whether a cave-effect triggered ethyl-benzoquinone evolution, we classed the "Typhloiulini" investigated here within a phylogenetic framework of julid taxa, and traced the evolutionary history of ethyl-benzoquinones in typhloiulines in relation to cave-dwelling. The results indicated a cave-independent evolution of ethyl-substituted benzoquinones, indicating the absence of a "cave effect" on the secretions of troglobiont Typhloiulini. Ethyl-benzoquinones probably evolved early in an epi- or endogean ancestor of a clade including several, but not all Typhloiulus (basically comprising a taxonomic entity known as "Typhloiulus sensu stricto") and Serboiulus. Ethyl-benzoquinones are proposed as novel and valuable chemical characters for julid systematics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slobodan E Makarov
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Michaela Bodner
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Doris Reineke
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Ljubodrag V Vujisić
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Marina M Todosijević
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Dragan Ž Antić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Boyan Vagalinski
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 2 Gagarin Street, 1113, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Luka R Lučić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Bojan M Mitić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Plamen Mitov
- Department of Zoology and Anthropology, Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridsky", Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Boban D Anđelković
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Sofija Pavković Lucić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Vlatka Vajs
- Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Vladimir T Tomić
- Institute of Zoology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Biology, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria.
- Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University, Children's Hospital, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036, Graz, Austria.
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16
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Stanković S, Dimkić I, Vujisić L, Pavković-Lučić S, Jovanović Z, Stević T, Sofrenić I, Mitić B, Tomić V. Chemical Defence in a Millipede: Evaluation and Characterization of Antimicrobial Activity of the Defensive Secretion from Pachyiulus hungaricus (Karsch, 1881) (Diplopoda, Julida, Julidae). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167249. [PMID: 27907048 PMCID: PMC5132186 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The chemical defence of the millipede Pachyiulus hungaricus is reported in the present paper, in which a chemical characterization is given and antimicrobial activity is determined. In total, independently of sex, 44 compounds were identified. All compounds belong to two groups: quinones and pentyl and hexyl esters of long-chain fatty acids. The relative abundances of quinones and non-quinones were 94.7% vs. 5.3% (males) and 87.3% vs. 12.7% (females), respectively. The two dominant quinones in both sexes were 2-methyl-1,4,-benzoquinone and 2-methoxy-3-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of the defensive secretion was evaluated in vitro against seven bacterial strains and eight fungal species. With the aid of a dilution technique, the antimicrobial potential of the secretion and high sensitivity of all tested strains were confirmed. The lowest minimum concentrations of these compounds (0.20-0.25 mg/mL) were sufficient for inhibition of Aeromonas hydrophila, Listeria monocytogenes and Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The growth of eight tested fungal species was inhibited by slightly lower concentrations of the secretion, with Fusarium equiseti as the most sensitive fungus and Aspergillus flavus as the most resistant. Values of MIC and MFC in the employed microdilution assay ranged from 0.10 to above 0.35 mg/mL. The given extract contains antimicrobial components potentially useful as therapeutic agents in the pharmaceutical and agricultural industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slaviša Stanković
- Department of Microbiology, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivica Dimkić
- Department of Microbiology, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ljubodrag Vujisić
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sofija Pavković-Lučić
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Zvezdana Jovanović
- Department of Animal Development, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Tatjana Stević
- Institute for Medicinal Plants Research “Dr. Josif Pančić”, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivana Sofrenić
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Chemistry, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Bojan Mitić
- Department of Animal Development, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vladimir Tomić
- Department of Animal Development, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Biology, Belgrade, Serbia
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17
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Vongsangnak W, Chumnanpuen P, Sriboonlert A. Transcriptome analysis reveals candidate genes involved in luciferin metabolism in Luciola aquatilis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). PeerJ 2016; 4:e2534. [PMID: 27761329 PMCID: PMC5068357 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Bioluminescence, which living organisms such as fireflies emit light, has been studied extensively for over half a century. This intriguing reaction, having its origins in nature where glowing insects can signal things such as attraction or defense, is now widely used in biotechnology with applications of bioluminescence and chemiluminescence. Luciferase, a key enzyme in this reaction, has been well characterized; however, the enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of its substrate, luciferin, remains unsolved at present. To elucidate the luciferin metabolism, we performed a de novo transcriptome analysis using larvae of the firefly species, Luciola aquatilis. Here, a comparative analysis is performed with the model coleopteran insect Tribolium casteneum to elucidate the metabolic pathways in L. aquatilis. Based on a template luciferin biosynthetic pathway, combined with a range of protein and pathway databases, and various prediction tools for functional annotation, the candidate genes, enzymes, and biochemical reactions involved in luciferin metabolism are proposed for L. aquatilis. The candidate gene expression is validated in the adult L. aquatilis using reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR). This study provides useful information on the bio-production of luciferin in the firefly and will benefit to future applications of the valuable firefly bioluminescence system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanwipa Vongsangnak
- Department of Zoology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand; Computational Biomodelling Laboratory for Agricultural Science and Technology (CBLAST), Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Pramote Chumnanpuen
- Department of Zoology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand; Computational Biomodelling Laboratory for Agricultural Science and Technology (CBLAST), Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ajaraporn Sriboonlert
- Department of Genetics, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand; Centre for Advanced Studies in Tropical Natural Resources, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
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18
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Nazareth TM, Sudatti DB, Machado G. Chemical Defense as a Condition-Dependent Trait in Harvestmen. J Chem Ecol 2016; 42:1047-1051. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-016-0749-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Revised: 07/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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19
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Bodner M, Vagalinski B, Makarov SE, Antić DŽ, Vujisić LV, Leis HJ, Raspotnig G. "Quinone Millipedes" Reconsidered: Evidence for a Mosaic-Like Taxonomic Distribution of Phenol-Based Secretions across the Julidae. J Chem Ecol 2016; 42:249-58. [PMID: 26971956 PMCID: PMC4839036 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-016-0680-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The defensive chemistry of juliformian millipedes is characterized mainly by benzoquinones ("quinone millipedes"), whereas the secretions of the putative close outgroup Callipodida are considered to be exclusively phenolic. We conducted a chemical screening of julid secretions for phenolic content. Most species from tribes Cylindroiulini (15 species examined), Brachyiulini (5 species examined), Leptoiulini (15 species examined), Uncigerini (2 species examined), Pachyiulini (3 species examined), and Ommatoiulini (2 species examined) had non-phenolic, in most cases exclusively benzoquinonic secretions. In contrast, tribes Cylindroiulini, Brachyiulini, and Leptoiulini also contained representatives with predominantly phenol-based exudates. In detail, p-cresol was a major compound in the secretions of the cylindroiulines Styrioiulus pelidnus and S. styricus (p-cresol content 93 %) and an undetermined Cylindroiulus species (p-cresol content 51 %), in the brachyiulines Brachyiulus lusitanus (p-cresol content 21 %) and Megaphyllum fagorum (p-cresol content 92 %), as well as in an undescribed Typhloiulus species (p-cresol content 32 %, Leptoiulini). In all species, p-cresol was accompanied by small amounts of phenol. The secretion of M. fagorum was exclusively phenolic, whereas phenols were accompanied by benzoquinones in all other species. This is the first incidence of clearly phenol-dominated secretions in the Julidae. We hypothesize a shared biosynthetic route to phenols and benzoquinones, with benzoquinones being produced from phenolic precursors. The patchy taxonomic distribution of phenols documented herein supports multiple independent regression events in a common pathway of benzoquinone synthesis rather than multiple independent incidences of phenol biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Bodner
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Boyan Vagalinski
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 2 Gagarin Street, 1113, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Slobodan E Makarov
- Institute of Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Dragan Ž Antić
- Institute of Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Ljubodrag V Vujisić
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 12-16, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Hans-Jörg Leis
- Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University, University Children's Hospital, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036, Graz, Austria
| | - Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria.
- Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University, University Children's Hospital, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036, Graz, Austria.
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20
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Nazareth TM, Machado G. Egg Production Constrains Chemical Defenses in a Neotropical Arachnid. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134908. [PMID: 26331946 PMCID: PMC4557954 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Female investment in large eggs increases the demand for fatty acids, which are allocated for yolk production. Since the biosynthetic pathway leading to fatty acids uses the same precursors used in the formation of polyketides, allocation trade-offs are expected to emerge. Therefore, egg production should constrain the investment in chemical defenses based on polyketides, such as benzoquinones. We tested this hypothesis using the harvestman Acutiosoma longipes, which produces large eggs and releases benzoquinones as chemical defense. We predicted that the amount of secretion released by ovigerous females (OFs) would be smaller than that of non-ovigerous females (NOF). We also conducted a series of bioassays in the field and in the laboratory to test whether egg production renders OFs more vulnerable to predation. OFs produce less secretion than NOFs, which is congruent with the hypothesis that egg production constrains the investment in chemical defenses. Results of the bioassays show that the secretion released by OFs is less effective in deterring potential predators (ants and spiders) than the secretion released by NOFs. In conclusion, females allocate resources to chemical defenses in a way that preserves a primary biological function related to reproduction. However, the trade-off between egg and secretion production makes OFs vulnerable to predators. We suggest that egg production is a critical moment in the life of harvestman females, representing perhaps the highest cost of reproduction in the group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taís M. Nazareth
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, trav. 14, no. 321, São Paulo, SP, 05508–900, Brazil
| | - Glauco Machado
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, trav. 14, no. 321, São Paulo, SP, 05508–900, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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21
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Segovia JMG, Hara MR, Pagoti GF, Sannomiya M, Santos DYAC, Willemart RH. The Scent Glands of the Neotropical Harvestman Discocyrtus pectnifemur: Morphology, Behavior and Chemistry. J Chem Ecol 2015; 41:716-23. [PMID: 26271673 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-015-0612-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Harvestmen have a pair of scent glands that open through ozopores. The literature suggests a link between the morphology of the ozopore area and the emission of a defensive secretion. A previous study on a species that aggregates in open areas, where individuals are probably more easily spotted by predators, showed that this defensive secretion causes conspecifics to flee. However, it is unknown whether this behavior occurs in species that aggregate in sheltered areas, where prey are harder to find. Herein, we describe the morphology of the ozopore area, the mode of emission of the defensive secretion, and its chemical composition in the harvestman Discocyrtus pectinifemur. We also tested if the defensive secretion is used as an alarm pheromone. We found that D. pectinifemur releases the defensive secretion in different ways, one of them being as a jet. Emission as a jet contrasts with that known for all congeners previously studied, and is in accord with the expected morphology of the ozopore. We found that the defensive secretion of D. pectinifemur does not function as an alarm pheromone. The composition of the defensive secretion, a mixture of quinones, is congruent with those already described for the clade that includes Discocyrtus. Our results support the link between the morphology of the scent glands area and the emission behavior of the defensive secretion, and they suggest that the alarm pheromone function in harvestmen may be dependent on ecological factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlio M G Segovia
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Laboratório de Ecologia Sensorial e Comportamento de Artrópodes (LESCA), Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcos Ryotaro Hara
- Escola de Artes Ciências e Humanidades, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Arlindo Béttio, 1000 - Ermelino Matarazzo, 03828-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Ferreira Pagoti
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Laboratório de Ecologia Sensorial e Comportamento de Artrópodes (LESCA), Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Miriam Sannomiya
- Escola de Artes Ciências e Humanidades, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Arlindo Béttio, 1000 - Ermelino Matarazzo, 03828-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Deborah Y A C Santos
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão 277, 05508-090, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Hirata Willemart
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. .,Laboratório de Ecologia Sensorial e Comportamento de Artrópodes (LESCA), Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil. .,Escola de Artes Ciências e Humanidades, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Arlindo Béttio, 1000 - Ermelino Matarazzo, 03828-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil. .,Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia e Evolução, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
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22
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Raspotnig G, Bodner M, Schäffer S, Koblmüller S, Schönhofer A, Karaman I. Chemosystematics in the Opiliones (Arachnida): a comment on the evolutionary history of alkylphenols and benzoquinones in the scent gland secretions of Laniatores. Cladistics 2015; 31:202-209. [PMID: 26074662 PMCID: PMC4459239 DOI: 10.1111/cla.12079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Large prosomal scent glands constitute a major synapomorphic character of the arachnid order Opiliones. These glands produce a variety of chemicals very specific to opilionid taxa of different taxonomic levels, and thus represent a model system to investigate the evolutionary traits in exocrine secretion chemistry across a phylogenetically old group of animals. The chemically best-studied opilionid group is certainly Laniatores, and currently available chemical data allow first hypotheses linking the phylogeny of this group to the evolution of major chemical classes of secretion chemistry. Such hypotheses are essential to decide upon a best-fitting explanation of the distribution of scent-gland secretion compounds across extant laniatorean taxa, and hence represent a key toward a well-founded opilionid chemosystematics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, Karl-Franzens-University Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria ; Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University, University Children's Hospital Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036, Graz, Austria
| | - Michaela Bodner
- Institute of Zoology, Karl-Franzens-University Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Sylvia Schäffer
- Institute of Zoology, Karl-Franzens-University Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Stephan Koblmüller
- Institute of Zoology, Karl-Franzens-University Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Axel Schönhofer
- Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg University Johannes-von-Müller-Weg 6, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Ivo Karaman
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovica 2, 2100, Novi Sad, Serbia
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23
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Raspotnig G, Schaider M, Föttinger P, Leutgeb V, Komposch C. Benzoquinones from scent glands of phalangiid harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Eupnoi): a lesson from Rilaena triangularis. CHEMOECOLOGY 2014; 25:63-72. [PMID: 25774074 PMCID: PMC4353884 DOI: 10.1007/s00049-014-0177-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In case of disturbance, the phalangiine harvestman Rilaena triangularis (Eupnoi, Phalangiidae) emits a directed jet from large prosomal scent ("defensive") glands. The pungent-smelling secretion was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and found to contain mainly 1,4-benzoquinone along with 1,4-naphthoquinone and caprylic (=octanoic) acid. While various alkylated benzoquinones are characteristic for the scent gland secretions of many grassatorean Laniatores, this is the first incidence of benzoquinone-based chemical defense in palpatorean harvestmen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
- Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University, University Children’s Hospital, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Miriam Schaider
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
- Department of Limnology and Bio-Oceanography, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Petra Föttinger
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Verena Leutgeb
- Institute of Zoology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Christian Komposch
- Institute of Animal Ecology and Landscape Planning, ÖKOTEAM, Bergmanngasse 22, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Raspotnig G, Schaider M, Stabentheiner E, Leis HJ, Karaman I. On the enigmatic scent glands of dyspnoan harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones): first evidence for the production of volatile secretions. CHEMOECOLOGY 2014; 24:43-55. [PMID: 24634568 PMCID: PMC3948569 DOI: 10.1007/s00049-014-0146-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
While considerable knowledge on the chemistry of the scent gland secretions from the opilionid suborders Laniatores and Cyphophthalmi has been compiled, it is the Palpatores (Eupnoi and Dyspnoi) where chemical data are scarce. In particular, the Dyspnoi have remained nearly unstudied, mainly due to their reported general reluctance to release secretions as well as to the phenomenon of production of insoluble-and inaccessible-solid secretion. We here show that at least certain nemastomatid Dyspnoi, namely all three species of genus Carinostoma, indeed produce a volatile secretion, comprising octan-3-one, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one and acetophenone in species-specific combinations. In all Carinostoma spp., these volatiles are embedded in a semi-volatile, naphthoquinone matrix (mainly 1,4-naphthoquinone and 6-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone). In detail, acetophenone and traces of naphthoquinones characterize the secretions of Carinostoma carinatum. A mixture of octan-3-one, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one and large amounts of naphthoquinones were found in C. elegans, and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one together with small amounts of naphthoquinones in the secretions of C. ornatum. So far, exclusively naphthoquinones had been reported from a single dyspnoan hitherto studied, Paranemastoma quadripunctatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther Raspotnig
- Institute of Zoology, Karl-Franzens-University, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
- Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University, University Children’s Hospital, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Miriam Schaider
- Institute of Zoology, Karl-Franzens-University, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria
- Department of Limnology and Bio-Oceanography, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Edith Stabentheiner
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Karl-Franzens-University, Schubertstraße 51, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Hans-Jörg Leis
- Research Unit of Osteology and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University, University Children’s Hospital, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Ivo Karaman
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 2, 2100 Novi Sad, Serbia
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