A Network Pharmacology-Based Study on the Hepatoprotective Effect of Fructus Schisandrae

Chinese medicine in the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease based on network pharmacology: a review

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a clinicopathological syndrome characterized by abnormalities in hepatic fat deposition, the incidence of which has been increasing year by year in recent years. It has become the largest chronic liver disease globally and one of the important causes of cirrhosis and even primary liver cancer formation. The pathogenesis of NAFLD has not yet been fully clarified. Modern medicine lacks targeted clinical treatment protocols for NAFLD, and most drugs lack efficacy and have high side effects. In contrast, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has significant advantages in the treatment and prevention of NAFLD, which have been widely recognized by scholars around the world. In recent years, through the establishment of a "medicine-disease-target-pathway" network relationship, network pharmacology can explore the molecular basis of the role of medicines in disease prevention and treatment from various perspectives, predicting the pharmacological mechanism of the corresponding medicines. This approach is compatible with the holistic view and treatment based on pattern differentiation of TCM and has been widely used in TCM research. In this paper, by searching relevant databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase, we reviewed and analyzed the relevant signaling pathways and specific mechanisms of action of single Chinese medicine, Chinese medicine combinations, and Chinese patent medicine for the treatment of NAFLD in recent years. These related studies fully demonstrated the therapeutic characteristics of TCM with multi-components, multi-targets, and multi-pathways, which provided strong support for the exact efficacy of TCM exerted in the clinic. In conclusion, we believe that network pharmacology is more in line with the TCM mindset of treating diseases, but with some limitations. In the future, we should eliminate the potential risks of false positives and false negatives, clarify the interconnectivity between components, targets, and diseases, and conduct deeper clinical or experimental studies.

Potential Mechanisms Underlying the Therapeutic Roles of Gancao fuzi Decoction in Cold-dampness Obstruction Syndrome-type Knee Osteoarthritis

BACKGROUND

The key active components and potential molecular mechanism of Gancao Fuzi decoction (GFD) in the treatment of cold-dampness obstruction-type knee osteoarthritis (KOA) remain unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To explore the mechanism of GFD in the treatment of cold-dampness obstruction syndrome-type KOA by network pharmacology.

METHODS

The potential active components and targets of the four herbs in GFD (Fuzi, Guizhi, Baizhu, and Gancao) were screened using the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) database. The targets of KOA were obtained with the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD), the GeneCards database, and the DisGeNET database, and the common targets of the drugs and disease were ultimately obtained. Cytoscape (v.3.7.1) was used to draw the active component-target network, and the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING) (v.11.0) database was used to construct the protein interaction network. The Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) was used for the Gene Ontology (GO) function and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses of the intersecting targets.

RESULTS

A total of 102 potential active components and 208 targets of GFD in the treatment of cold-dampness obstruction syndrome-type KOA were screened. GFD treatment was found to be closely related to many inflammatory signalling pathways in the treatment of KOA.

CONCLUSION

The effect of GFD on cold-dampness obstruction syndrome-type KOA is mediated by multicomponent, multitarget, and multichannel mechanisms, which provides the basis for further experimental study of its pharmacodynamic material basis and mechanism.

Therapeutic potential and mechanism of Chinese herbal medicines in treating fibrotic liver disease

Liver fibrosis is a pathological condition characterized by replacement of normal liver tissue with scar tissue, and also the leading cause of liver-related death worldwide. During the treatment of liver fibrosis, in addition to antiviral therapy or removal of inducers, there remains a lack of specific and effective treatment strategies. For thousands of years, Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) have been widely used to treat liver fibrosis in clinical setting. CHMs are effective for liver fibrosis, though its mechanisms of action are unclear. In recent years, many studies have attempted to determine the possible mechanisms of action of CHMs in treating liver fibrosis. There have been substantial improvements in the experimental investigation of CHMs which have greatly promoted the understanding of anti-liver fibrosis mechanisms. In this review, the role of CHMs in the treatment of liver fibrosis is described, based on studies over the past decade, which has addressed the various mechanisms and signaling pathways that mediate therapeutic efficacy. Among them, inhibition of stellate cell activation is identified as the most common mechanism. This article provides insights into the research direction of CHMs, in order to expand its clinical application range and improve its effectiveness.

Forecasting of potential anti-inflammatory targets of some immunomodulatory plants and their constituents using in vitro, molecular docking and network pharmacology-based analysis

Most synthetic immunomodulatory medications are extremely expensive, have many disadvantages and suffer from a lot of side effects. So that, introducing immunomodulatory reagents from natural sources will have great impact on drug discovery. Therefore, this study aimed to comprehend the mechanism of the immunomodulatory activity of some natural plants via network pharmacology together with molecular docking and in vitro testing. Apigenin, luteolin, diallyl trisulfide, silibinin and allicin had the highest percentage of C-T interactions while, AKT1, CASP3, PTGS2, NOS3, TP53 and MMP9 were found to be the most enriched genes. Moreover, the most enriched pathways were pathways in cancer, fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, relaxin signaling pathway, IL-17 signaling pathway and FoxO signaling pathway. Additionally, Curcuma longa, Allium sativum, Oleu europea, Salvia officinalis, Glycyrrhiza glabra and Silybum marianum had the highest number of P-C-T-P interactions. Furthermore, molecular docking analysis of the top hit compounds against the most enriched genes revealed that silibinin had the most stabilized interactions with AKT1, CASP3 and TP53, whereas luteolin and apigenin exhibited the most stabilized interactions with AKT1, PTGS2 and TP53. In vitro anti-inflammatory and cytotoxicity testing of the highest scoring plants exhibited equivalent outcomes to those of piroxicam.

Schisantherin A alleviates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by restoring intestinal barrier function

Background

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is intricately linked to dysregulation of the gut–liver axis, and correlated with intestinal inflammation and barrier disruption.

Objectives

To investigate the protective effects and possible molecular mechanism of Schisantherin A (Sin A) in a high-fat diet (HFD) induced NAFLD mouse model.

Methods

HFD-fed NAFLD mice were treated with the vehicle and 80 mg/kg Sin A every day for 6 weeks. The gut permeability of the NAFLD mice was assessed by intestinal permeability assays in vivo and transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurements in vitro were also used to evaluate the function of the gut barrier. TLR4 inhibitor was then used to investigate the impact of Sin A in the LPS- TLR4 signaling pathway. Alternatively, the composition of the microbiome was assessed using 16S rRNA amplification. Finally, the experiment of antibiotic treatment was performed to elucidate the roles of the gut microbiome mediating Sin A induced metabolic benefits in the NAFLD mice.

Results

We found that Sin A potently ameliorated HFD-induced hepatic steatosis and inflammation, alleviated gut inflammation, and restored intestinal barrier function. We also observed that Sin A improved gut permeability and reduced the release of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) into circulation and further found that Sin A can suppress LPS-TLR4 signaling to protect against HFD-induced NAFLD. Sin A treatment altered the composition of the microbiome in NAFLD mice compared to vehicle controls.

Conclusions

Sin A is an effective and safe hepatoprotective agent against HFD-induced NAFLD by partly ameliorating gut inflammation, restoring intestinal barrier function, and regulating intestinal microbiota composition.

A network pharmacology-based approach to explore the therapeutic potential of Sceletium tortuosum in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders

Sceletium tortuosum (SCT) has been utilized medicinally by indigenous Koi-San people purportedly for mood elevation. SCT extracts are reported to be neuroprotective and have efficacy in improving cognition. However, it is still unclear which of the pharmacological mechanisms of SCT contribute to the therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative disorders. Hence, this study investigated two aspects–firstly, the abilities of neuroprotective sub-fractions from SCT on scavenging radicals, inhibiting some usual targets relevant to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) or Parkinson’s disease (PD), and secondly utilizing the network pharmacology related methods to search probable mechanisms using Surflex-Dock program to show the key targets and corresponding SCT constituents. The results indicated sub-fractions from SCT could scavenge 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), monoamine oxidase type B (MAO-B) and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR). Furthermore, the results of gene ontology and docking analyses indicated the key targets involved in the probable treatment of AD or PD might be AChE, MAO-B, NMDAR subunit2B (GluN2B-NMDAR), adenosine A_2A receptor and cannabinoid receptor 2, and the corresponding constituents in Sceletium tortuosum might be N-trans-feruloyl-3-methyldopamine, dihydrojoubertiamine and other mesembrine type alkaloids. In summary, this study has provided new evidence for the therapeutic potential of SCT in the treatment of AD or PD, as well as the key targets and notable constituents in SCT. Therefore, we propose SCT could be a natural chemical resource for lead compounds in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.

Ameliorating effects of water bamboo shoot (Zizania latifolia) on acute alcoholism in a mice model and its chemical composition

In this study, the ameliorative effect of water bamboo shoot (WBS) on acute alcoholism mice was investigated and potential biological compounds were explored. Results showed that extraction methods significantly affected the active substances contents and bioactivities of WBS. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that alkali extract (NE) obtained the highest score, therefore, it was selected for further analysis. Animal experiments showed that NE demonstrated ameliorative effects on acute alcoholism mice as evident by significantly elevated activities of dehydrogenase (alcohol dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase) and antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase), whereas significantly reduced the levels of aminotransferase (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase) in serum. The potential bioactive activity compounds of NE were explored by UPLC-MS/MS and bioinformatics analysis. Butyl isobutyl phthalate vanillin, ferulic acid methyl ester might be the major compounds in NE on alleviating acute alcoholism. These results indicated that WBS possesses potential ameliorating effect on acute alcoholism.

Network Pharmacology Approach for Medicinal Plants: Review and Assessment

Natural products have played a critical role in medicine due to their ability to bind and modulate cellular targets involved in disease. Medicinal plants hold a variety of bioactive scaffolds for the treatment of multiple disorders. The less adverse effects, affordability, and easy accessibility highlight their potential in traditional remedies. Identifying pharmacological targets from active ingredients of medicinal plants has become a hot topic for biomedical research to generate innovative therapies. By developing an unprecedented opportunity for the systematic investigation of traditional medicines, network pharmacology is evolving as a systematic paradigm and becoming a frontier research field of drug discovery and development. The advancement of network pharmacology has opened up new avenues for understanding the complex bioactive components found in various medicinal plants. This study is attributed to a comprehensive summary of network pharmacology based on current research, highlighting various active ingredients, related techniques/tools/databases, and drug discovery and development applications. Moreover, this study would serve as a protocol for discovering novel compounds to explore the full range of biological potential of traditionally used plants. We have attempted to cover this vast topic in the review form. We hope it will serve as a significant pioneer for researchers working with medicinal plants by employing network pharmacology approaches.

Integration of full-length transcriptomes and anthocyanin metabolite analysis for understanding fruit coloration mechanism in Schisandra chinensis

Coloration directly affects the commercial value of Schisandra chinensis fruits. The composition and content of anthocyanin determine the S. chinensis fruit coloration. However, the molecular mechanism of anthocyanin biosynthesis and regulation in this fruit remains unknown. In this study, we performed integrative full-length transcriptomics and targeted metabolomics analyses in S. chinensis fruits at four different developmental stages to elucidate the coloration mechanism. Cyanidin3-O-xyl-rutinoside is the key anthocyanin, which is responsible for the reddening of S. chinensis fruits, and its accumulation gradually accelerated from the 80th day after fluorescence. Overall, 122,289 unigenes with an average length of 2592 bp and an N50 of 4232 bp were obtained through single-molecule real-time sequencing; a total of 16,456 differentially expressed genes were identified. Moreover, 10 full-length structural genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis were found to be significantly differentially expressed with fruit ripening. Moreover, 10 glycosyltransferases (GTs) that may possess the activities of anthocyanidin 3-O-glucosyltransferase, anthocyanidin 3-O-glucoside rhamnosyltransferase, and xylosyltransferases, which are involved in the final three steps for cyanidin3-O-xyl-rutinoside synthesis, were identified through phylogenetic analysis. Based on these findings, we constructed the complete anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway in S. chinensis fruits; five ScMYBs, three ScbHLHs, and two ScWD40s potentially involved in regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis in S. chinensis fruits were also selected. Our study provides the foundation for further research on the molecular mechanism of anthocyanin biosynthesis and regulation for improving the quality of S. chinensis fruits. The results of full-length transcriptomes would provide researchers with novel insights into the molecular cloning of enzymes and their activity.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-022-01179-3.

Schisandrin B Induced ROS-Mediated Autophagy and Th1/Th2 Imbalance via Selenoproteins in Hepa1-6 Cells

Schisandrin B (Sch B) is well-known for its antitumor effect; however, its underlying mechanism remains confusing. Our study aimed to investigate the role of selenoproteins in Sch B-induced autophagy and Th1/Th2 imbalance in Hepa1-6 cells. Hepa1-6 cells were chosen to explore the antitumor mechanism and were treated with 0, 25, 50, and 100 μM of Sch B for 24 h, respectively. We detected the inhibition rate of proliferation, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining, reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and oxidative stress-related indicators, autophagy-related genes, related Th1/Th2 cytokines, and selenoprotein mRNA expression. Moreover, the heat map, principal component analysis (PCA), and correlation analysis were used for further bioinformatics analysis. The results revealed that Sch B exhibited well-inhibited effects on Hepa1-6 cells. Subsequently, under Sch B treatment, typical autophagy characteristics were increasingly apparent, and the level of punctate MDC staining enhanced and regulated the autophagy-related genes. Overall, Sch B induced autophagy in Hepa1-6 cells. In addition, Sch B-promoted ROS accumulation eventually triggered autophagy initiation. Results of Th1 and Th2 cytokine mRNA expression indicated that Th1/Th2 immune imbalance was observed by Sch B treatment in Hepa1-6 cells. Intriguingly, Sch B downregulated the majority of selenoprotein expression. Also, the heat map results observed significant variation of autophagy-related genes, related Th1/Th2 cytokines, and selenoprotein expression in response to Sch B treatment. PCA outcome suggested the key role of Txnrd1, Txnrd3, Selp, GPX2, Dio3, and Selr with its potential interactions in ROS-mediated autophagy and Th1/Th2 imbalance of Hepa1-6 cells. In conclusion, Sch B induced ROS-mediated autophagy and Th1/Th2 imbalance in Hepa1-6 cells. More importantly, the majority of selenoproteins were intimately involved in the process of autophagy and Th1/Th2 imbalance, Txnrd3, Selp, GPX2, Dio3, and Selr had considerable impacts on the process.

Protective Effect and Potential Mechanism of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Shaoyao-Gancao Decoction on Ethanol-Induced Gastric Ulcers in Rats

Background

Shaoyao-Gancao decoction (SGD) is a classic prescription in traditional Chinese medicine. SGD is effective in the treatment of gastric and duodenal ulcers. However, the biological activity and possible mechanisms of SGD in the treatment of gastric ulcers have not been fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to scientifically evaluate the protective effect and potential mechanism of SGD against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in rats.

Methods

A single gavage of 10 mL/kg of 75% ethanol was used to establish a rat gastric ulcer model. A histopathological examination of the gastric tissue was performed. The levels of TNF-α, EGF, PGE₂, SOD, and TBARS in gastric tissue were measured by ELISA. Cellular apoptosis in gastric tissues was assessed by TUNEL assay. The expression levels of caspase-3 and Bcl-2 were determined by immunohistochemistry. The potential mechanism of SGD in treating gastric ulcers was further studied using a network pharmacology research method.

Results

The gastric tissue of rats with ethanol-induced gastric ulcers had obvious injury throughout the mucosal layer, which was significantly weakened in rats treated with SGD. Furthermore, treatment with SGD significantly increased the levels of EGF, PGE₂, SOD, and Bcl-2 and decreased the levels of TNF-α, TBARS, and caspase-3 in the gastric tissue of rats with ethanol-induced gastric ulcers. SGD reduced ethanol-induced cell apoptosis in gastric tissue from rats with gastric ulcers. A traditional Chinese medicine-based network pharmacology study revealed that SGD exerts its anti-gastric ulcer effect by acting on multiple pathways.

Conclusions

The above results indicate that SGD can improve gastric ulcers induced by ethanol. Moreover, this study demonstrated multicomponent, multitarget, and multipathway characteristics of SGD in the treatment of gastric ulcers and provided a foundation for further drug development research.

Schisandrin B regulates macrophage polarization and alleviates liver fibrosis via activation of PPARγ

Background

Schisandrin B (Sch B), the main ingredient of Schisandra chinensis, displays many bioactivities. This study aimed to identify the drug target of Sch B against liver fibrosis and describe the related molecular mechanisms.

Methods

The effects of Sch B on liver fibrosis and macrophage polarization was investigated in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, we analyzed the regulatory effect of Sch B on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ).

Results

Our data showed that Sch B dramatically alleviated liver inflammation and fibrosis and inhibited macrophage activation via PPARγ. Sch B binds with PPARγ by molecular docking. Immunofluorescence double staining showed that PPARγ was mainly expressed in macrophages rather than hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in liver fibrosis. Importantly, Sch B strongly inhibited macrophage polarization in fibrotic livers compared with the model group. Further, the results revealed that Sch B efficiently inhibited macrophage polarization and also decreased the levels of inflammatory cytokines in vitro. Knockdown of PPARγ by small interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibited the effect of Sch B on macrophage polarization. Mechanistically, Sch B regulated macrophage polarization through inhibition of the nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling pathway via PPARγ both in vivo and in vitro.

Conclusions

These results suggested that Sch B alleviated carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver inflammation and fibrosis by inhibiting macrophage polarization via targeting PPARγ.

Hepatoprotective Constituents of Total Dibenzocyclooctadiene Lignans from Schisandra chinensis Based on the Spectrum-Effect Relationship

To scientifically clarify the hepatoprotective constituents of Fructus Schizandrae chinensis, eleven batches samples of total dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans (TDL) from Schisandra chinensis were prepared by using the optimum extraction technique. Characteristic high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) chromatograms were obtained through HPLC analysis technology, and the hepatoprotective effects of the eleven batches of TDL were evaluated by MTT assay. Based on the chemical and biological activity results, the spectrum-effect relationship between the characteristic HPLC fingerprints and the hepatoprotective effect of TDL was established using Minitab 16.0 data analysis software. On the basis of the spectrum-effect relationship, thirteen compounds (1–13) were obtained from the TDL by chemical natural product chemical separation and purification technology, and their structures were identified on the basis of the spectral data and the literature. Based on these compounds, thirteen common peaks among the thirty-three chromatographic peaks in the above HPLC fingerprints were identified. Our findings showed that some components, including, schisandrin B (2), schisandrin A (3), and schisandrol B (7) had significant roles in promoting hepatoprotective activity. Preliminary verification of the spectrum-effect relationship of TDL from S. chinensis was carried out, and the results confirmed that the activity of a composite of these three key components in optimal ratios was better than that of any individual compound, which potentially confirmed the reliability of the spectrum-effect relationship and the synergistic effects of traditional Chinese medicine.

Identification of the constituents and the cancer-related targets of the fruit of Solanum nigrum based on molecular docking and network pharmacology

The fruit of Solanum nigrum (FSN) exhibited a variety of biological activities. However, the chemical composition of the fruit, as well as the steroidal alkaloids responsible for the bioactivity and the mechanism of action need to be further studied. The ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid quadrupole-orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q Orbitrap HRMS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) were applied to investigate the chemical composition of FSN, which led to the identification of 170 compounds, including 12 amino acids, 4 caffeoylquinic acids, 2 flavonols, 114 steroid alkaloids, 5 steroid saponins and 33 other structure compounds. The network pharmacology showed that the anticancer effect of 14 steroid alkaloids was probably acting through 99 biological targets. Among them, 11 alkaloids and 11 targets probably played the important role based on the results of molecular docking. This study enriched our knowledge about the chemical composition of FSN, as well as the anticancer mechanism of steroidal alkaloids in FSN.

Exploring the mechanism of PingTang No.5 capsule on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease through network pharmacology and experimental validation

PingTang No.5 capsule (PT5), a modified Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) formula of Zexie Decoction, is used to treat patients with lipid metabolism disorders in our hospital. The present study was designed to investigate the mechanisms of PT5 in treating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). PT5 information including ingredients, pharmacological properties, and potential targets was obtained from TCM databases. The candidate targets of PT5 were predicted by network pharmacological analysis, and the possible pathway and mechanism were obtained from DAVID database, followed by experimental validation in NAFLD mice model treated with PT5. Total 328 compounds were selected using the threshold oral bioactivity (OB) > 30% or drug-likeness (DL) > 0.1 of pharmacology characteristic, and 1033 candidate targets obtained to construct the network analysis. The 113 targets were selected from the intersection between candidate targets of PT5 and NAFLD relative gene. These targets were evaluated in diabetic complications, cancer, Hepatitis B, Fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, and TNF signaling pathway. TNF-α was the important factor in protein interaction analysis of STRING and involved in the lipid regulation and oxidative stress in NAFLD. When administrated to the NAFLD mice, PT5 reduced weight, blood fatty acids, decreased the adipocyte size, and improved the metabolism. Besides, the molecular verification of lipid metabolism increased and oxidative stress reduced that interpreted the mechanism of PT5 preventing liver cell from lipid accumulation and injury of NAFLD. These results presented PT5 have the potential therapy as an alternative treatment for NAFLD.

HPLC-MS/MS-Mediated Analysis of the Pharmacokinetics, Bioavailability, and Tissue Distribution of Schisandrol B in Rats

Schisandrol B, a lignan isolated from dried Schisandra chinensis fruits, has been shown to exhibit hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, renoprotective, and memory-enhancing properties. This study sought to design a sensitive and efficient HPLC-MS/MS approach to measuring Schisandrol B levels in rat plasma and tissues in order to assess the pharmacokinetics, oral bioavailability, and tissue distributions of this compound in vivo. For this analysis, bifendate was chosen as an internal standard (IS). A liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) approach was employed for the preparation of samples that were subsequently separated with an Agilent ZORBAX Eclipse XDB-C₁₈ (4.6 × 150 mm, 5 μm) column with an isocratic mobile phase consisting of methanol and water containing 5 mM ammonium acetate and 0.1% formic acid (90 : 10, v/v). A linear calibration curve was obtained over the 5–2000 ng/mL and 1–1000 ng/mL ranges for plasma samples and tissue homogenates, respectively. This established method was then successfully applied to investigate the pharmacokinetics, oral bioavailability, and tissue distributions of Schisandrol B in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats that were intravenously administered 2 mg/kg of Schisandrol B monomer, intragastrically administered Schisandrol B monomer (10 mg/kg), or intragastrically administered 6 mL/kg SCE (equivalent to 15 mg/kg Schisandrol B monomer). The oral absolute bioavailability of Schisandrol B following intragastric Schisandrol B monomer and SCE administration was approximately 18.73% and 68.12%, respectively. Tissue distribution studies revealed that Schisandrol B was distributed throughout several tested tissues, with particular accumulation in the liver and kidneys. Our data represent a valuable foundation for future studies of the pharmacologic and biological characteristics of Schisandrol B.

Schisandrin C attenuates renal damage in diabetic nephropathy by regulating macrophage polarization

This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of Schisandrin C during diabetic nephropathy (DN) treatment. After DN induction, mice were treated with Schisandrin C, and diabetic metabolic parameters and renal function-associated factors were measured. Renal structural damage was evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and Masson's trichrome staining. Macrophage polarization and macrophage-mediated inflammatory factors were detected in the kidneys by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. The Swiprosin-1/interferon (IFN)-γ-Rβ pathway was evaluated by western blot (WB) analysis. The preliminary effects of Schisandrin C in high-glucose-stimulated macrophages from DN mice were verified by flow cytometry, ELISA, and WB analyses. These results indicated that Schisandrin C significantly regulated physiological parameters in DN. Renal structural damage was mitigated by Schisandrin C. In Schisandrin-C-treated groups, the expression levels of CD86, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β decreased, whereas CD206, IL-10, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β expression levels increased. In vitro experiments indicated that among CD86⁺ cells, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β expression levels significantly decreased, whereas among CD206⁺ cells, IL-10 and TGF-β expression increased following Schisandrin-C-treatment. Finally, Schisandrin C inhibited the expression of Swiprosin-1, IFN-γ-Rβ, phospho-Janus kinase 2 (p-JAK2), phospho-signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (p-STAT1), and p-STAT3, in both DN model mice and high-glucose-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The present study indicated a novel use for Schisandrin C to suppress DN progression, by promoting M1 to M2 macrophage polarization. Schisandrin C exerted protective effects against DN by regulating the polarization-dependent Swiprosin-1/IFN-γ-Rβ signaling pathway in macrophages.

A comprehensive application: Molecular docking and network pharmacology for the prediction of bioactive constituents and elucidation of mechanisms of action in component-based Chinese medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been used for more than 2000 years in China. TCM has received wide attention recently due to its unique charm. At the same time, its main obstacles have attracted wide attention, including vagueness of drug composition and treatment mechanism. With the development of virtual screening technology, more and more Chinese medicine compounds have been studied to discover the potential active components and mechanisms of action. Molecular docking is a computer technology based on structural design. Network pharmacology establishes powerful and comprehensive databases to understand the relationship between TCM and disease network. In this review, emergent uses and applications of two techniques and further superiorities of the two techniques when embarked to boil down into a tidy system were illustrated. A combination of the two provides a theoretical basis and technical support for the construction of modern TCM based on the compatibility of components and accelerates the realization of two basic elements as well, including the clearness of the pharmacodynamic substances and explanation of the effect of TCM.

Panax ginseng callus, suspension, and root cultures: extraction and qualitative analysis

Introduction. In recent years, scientists have been actively searching for medicinal plants containing biologically active substances with geroprotective properties to treat diseases of old age, in particular cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and others. Ginseng (Panax ginseng L.) is a promising source of geroprotective compounds. We aimed to select optimal parameters for extracting organic compounds from ginseng callus, suspension, and root cultures and analyze their qualitative composition. Study objects and methods. We studied ginseng callus, suspension, and root cultures, as well as their extracts. Biologically active substances were extracted with 30 to 70% ethanol. Organic compounds were determined by thin-layer chromatography. The results for each plant were archived and analyzed for the presence of quercetin, mangiferin, luteolin, rutin, quercetin-2-D-glucoside, malvidin, as well as caffeic, cinnamic, ferulic, and sinapinic acids. Results and discussion. We developed a procedure for screening solvents and performed a fractional qualitative analysis of biologically active substances extracted from ginseng. As a result, we established the optimal parameters for extracting biologically active substances from the dried biomass of ginseng cultures. In all cases, temperature and the ratio of solvent to biomass were the same (50°C, 1:5). However, the extraction time and ethanol concentration differed, amounting to 60 min and 50% for callus cultures, 30 min and 60% for suspension cultures, and 60 min and 70% for root cultures. The qualitative analysis of organic compounds showed the presence of rutin (0.25), quercetin (0.75), and mangiferin (0.57), as well as caffeic and sinapinic acids in the extracts. Conclusion. Our set of experiments to isolate biologically active substances from ginseng callus, suspension, and root cultures resulted in selecting the optimal extraction parameters and analyzing the extracts for the presence of organic compounds.

Pharmacological Effects of Agastache rugosa against Gastritis Using a Network Pharmacology Approach

Agastache rugosa is used as a Korean traditional medicine to treat gastric diseases. However, the active ingredients and pharmacological targets of A. rugosa are unknown. In this study, we aimed to reveal the pharmacological effects of A. rugosa on gastritis by combining a mice model and a network pharmacology method. The macrophage and gastritis-induced models were used to evaluate the pharmacological effects of A. rugosa. The results show that A. rugosa relieved mucosal damage induced by HCl/EtOH in vivo. Network analysis identified 99 components in A. rugosa; six components were selected through systematic screening, and five components were linked to 45 gastritis-related genes. The main components were acacetin and luteolin, and the identified core genes were AKT serine/threonine kinase 1 (AKT1), nuclear factor kappa B inhibitor alpha (NFKBIA), and mitogen-activated protein kinase-3 (MAPK3) etc. in this network. The network of components, target genes, protein–protein interactions, and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway was closely connected with chemokines and with phosphoinositide 3-kinase-Akt (PI3K/AKT), tumor-necrosis-factor alpha (TNFα), mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor kappa B, and Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathways. In conclusion, A. rugosa exerts gastro-protective effects through a multi-compound and multi-pathway regulatory network and holds potential for treating inflammatory gastric diseases.

Targeting Hepatic Stellate Cells for the Treatment of Liver Fibrosis by Natural Products: Is It the Dawning of a New Era?

Liver fibrosis is a progressive liver damage condition that is worth studying widely. It is important to target and alleviate the disease at an early stage before turning into later cirrhosis or liver cancer. There are currently no direct medicines targeting the attenuation or reversal of liver fibrosis, and so there is an urgent need to look into this area. Traditional Chinese Medicine has a long history in using herbal medicines to treat liver diseases including fibrosis. It is time to integrate the ancient wisdom with modern science and technology to look for the best solution to the disease. In this review, the principal concept of the pathology of liver fibrosis will be described, and then some of the single compounds isolated from herbal medicines, including salvianolic acids, oxymatrine, curcumin, tetrandrine, etc. will be discussed from their effects to the molecular mechanism behind. Molecular targets of the compounds are analyzed by network pharmacology approach, and TGFβ/SMAD was identified as the most common pathway. This review serves to summarize the current findings of herbal medicines combining with modern medicines in the area of fibrosis. It hopefully provides insights in further pharmaceutical research directions.

Essential Oil Phytocomplex Activity, a Review with a Focus on Multivariate Analysis for a Network Pharmacology-Informed Phytogenomic Approach

Thanks to omic disciplines and a systems biology approach, the study of essential oils and phytocomplexes has been lately rolling on a faster track. While metabolomic fingerprinting can provide an effective strategy to characterize essential oil contents, network pharmacology is revealing itself as an adequate, holistic platform to study the collective effects of herbal products and their multi-component and multi-target mediated mechanisms. Multivariate analysis can be applied to analyze the effects of essential oils, possibly overcoming the reductionist limits of bioactivity-guided fractionation and purification of single components. Thanks to the fast evolution of bioinformatics and database availability, disease-target networks relevant to a growing number of phytocomplexes are being developed. With the same potential actionability of pharmacogenomic data, phytogenomics could be performed based on relevant disease-target networks to inform and personalize phytocomplex therapeutic application.

Interpreting the Pharmacological Mechanisms of Huachansu Capsules on Hepatocellular Carcinoma Through Combining Network Pharmacology and Experimental Evaluation

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most fatal cancers across the world. Chinese medicine has been used as adjunctive or complementary therapy for the management of HCC. Huachansu belongs to a class of toxic steroids isolated from toad venom that has important anti-cancer property. This study was aimed to identify the bioactive constituents and molecular targets of Huachansu capsules (HCSCs) for treating HCC using network pharmacology analysis and experimental assays. The major bioactive components of HCSCs were determined using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). A series of network pharmacology methods including target prediction, pathway identification, and network establishment were applied to identify the modes of action of HCSCs against HCC. Furthermore, a series of experiments, including MTT, clonogenic assay, 3-D transwell, wound healing assay, as well as flow cytometry, were conducted to verify the inhibitory ability of HCSCs on HCC in vitro. The results showed that 11 chemical components were identified from HCSCs. The network pharmacological analysis showed that there were 82 related anti-HCC targets and 14 potential pathways for these 11 components. Moreover, experimental assays confirmed the inhibitory effects of HCSCs against HCC in vitro. Taken together, our study revealed the synergistic effects of HCSCs on a systematic level, and suggested that HCSCs exhibited anti-HCC effects in a multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway manner.

Structural Perspectives of the CYP3A Family and Their Small Molecule Modulators in Drug Metabolism

Cytochrome P450 enzymes function to catalyze a wide range of reactions, many of which are critically important for drug response. Members of the human cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) family are particularly important in drug clearance, and they collectively metabolize more than half of all currently prescribed medications. The ability of these enzymes to bind a large and structurally diverse set of compounds increases the chances of their modulating or facilitating drug metabolism in unfavorable ways. Emerging evidence suggests that individual enzymes in the CYP3A family play discrete and important roles in catalysis and disease progression. Here we review the similarities and differences among CYP3A enzymes with regard to substrate recognition, metabolism, modulation by small molecules, and biological consequence, highlighting some of those with clinical significance. We also present structural perspectives to further characterize the basis of these comparisons.

Unraveling the action mechanism of polygonum cuspidatum by a network pharmacology approach

As a popular Chinese herbal medicine (CHM), polygonum cuspidatum is widely used to treat various diseases in China. However, its biological function and action mechanism have yet to be systematically explored. In the present study, we first identified 14 potential active ingredients of polygonum cuspidatum using the TCMSP server and then conducted an in silico target prediction for these ingredients using PharmMapper. The subsequent KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of the 57 identified potential targets revealed that they were closely associated with cancer and gynecological disorders. Furthermore, a protein-protein interaction network of these targets was constructed using STRING and Cytoscape, through which 11 core targets were excavated according to degree, a key topological parameter. Meanwhile, we developed a novel formula, in which the "R value" is determined by average shortest path length and closeness centrality, two other key topological parameters, to evaluate the reliability of these predicted core targets. Intriguingly, among the top 10 core targets excavated using this new formula, 7 overlapped with the former 11 core targets, showing a good consistency in these core targets between the different prediction algorithms. Next, 7 ingredients were identified/validated from the crude extract of polygonum cuspidatum using UPLC-MS/MS. Noteworthy, 6 potential targets predicted for these 7 ingredients overlapped with the 7 core targets excavated from the previous in silico analyses. Further molecular docking and druggability analyses suggested that polydatin may play a pivotal role in manifesting the therapeutic effects of polygonum cuspidatum. Finally, we carried out a series of cell functional assays, which validated the anti-proliferative effects of polygonum cuspidatum on gynecological cancer cells, thus demonstrating our network pharmacology approach is reliable and powerful enough to guide the CHM mechanism study.

Prediction of potential cancer-related molecular targets of North African plants constituents using network pharmacology-based analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Nowadays, cancer is considered one of the leading causes of death in developing countries. Due to mediocre socioeconomic status of many of the North African countries, people resort to traditional medicine from natural products for cancer therapy which are of great chemical complexity, interacting with several protein targets leading to synergistic effects. A holistic network pharmacology approach is needed for understanding the molecular mechanism of North African plants constituents in the different cancer-related pathways.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is the implementation of network pharmacology for identification of the main active constituents of North African plants against cancer molecular targets and to explore their therapeutic mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Constituents of North African plants were retrieved from public database and ADME screening was implemented for filtration of constituents using Qikprop software. STITCH database was used for predicting the plant constituents target proteins/genes, TDD DB and Uniprot databases were used for identifying genes related to cancer. Constituent-target gene (C-T), constituent-pathway (C-P) and plant-constituent-target gene (P-C-T) networks were constructed using Cytoscape to decipher the anti-cancer mechanism of action of the plants. KEGG pathway and GO enrichment analysis were performed to investigate the molecular mechanisms and pathways related to cancer.

RESULTS

6844 constituent were subjected to ADME filtration resulting in 3194 constituent which were forwarded to target prediction. 53 constituents and 36 targets were linked through 329 edges which constituted the main pathways related to cancer. Luteolin, alternariol, apigenin, aloe-emodin and myricetin had the highest combined score in the C-T network, while the genes CASP3, CYP1A1, CYP1B1, PTGS2, MAPK8, AKT1 and EGFR were the most enriched by the constituents in this network. Euphorbia spp., Hyphaene thebaica, Artemisia herba-alba, bee propolis and Marrubium vulgare possessed the largest number of P-C-T interactions. The identified targets were mainly associated with cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in addition to inhibition of cellular proliferation by revealing a striking functional association with various signal and cancer related pathways CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of the constructed pharmacological networks results allowed for the prediction and interpretation of the multi-constituent, multi-target, and multi-pathway mechanisms of North African plants as potential source for supportive treatment of cancer where their potential molecular mechanism towards cancer-associated targets, biological processes and pathways were revealed.

Schisandra fruits for the management of drug-induced liver injury in China: A review

BACKGROUND

With increasing use of pharmaceuticals, drug-induced liver injury (DILI) has become a significant therapeutic challenge to physicians all over the world. Drugs based on Schisandra fruits (SF for short, the fruits of Schisandra chinensis or Schisandra sphenanthera) or synthetic analogues of schisandrin C, are commonly prescribed for treating DILI in China.

PURPOSE

This review summarizes the literature regarding the application of SF-derived drugs in patients with DILI and current understanding of mechanisms underlying the protective effects of SF against liver injury.

METHODS

Keywords related to drug-induced liver injury and Schisandra fruits were searched in the following databases: Pubmed, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, LiverTox, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Chinese Scientific Journal database (VIP), and Wanfang database. All studies, published in English or Chinese, were included. Clinical study exclusion criteria: if patients received other Chinese herbal medicines in a study, the study will not be included in this review.

RESULTS

Clinical studies have shown that SF-derived drugs are effective in inhibiting drug-induced elevation of serum levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate transaminase and total bilirubin. Cellular and animal studies have demonstrated that crude SF extracts, lignan compounds found in SF, and SF-derived drugs are effective in protecting the liver against xenobiotic-induced injury. Regulation of cytochrome P450 enzyme activity, anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation and acceleration of liver regeneration are involved in the hepatoprotective mechanisms of SF.

CONCLUSION

SF-derived drugs are effective in ameliorating DILI in China. To verify the clinical efficacy of these drugs, high-quality clinical studies are needed.

A Rapid UPLC-MS Method for Quantification of Gomisin D in Rat Plasma and Its Application to a Pharmacokinetic and Bioavailability Study

Gomisin D, a lignan compound isolated from Fructus Schisandra, is a potential antidiabetic and anti-Alzheimer’s agent. Recently, gomisin D was used as a quality marker of some traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formulas. In this study, a rapid ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry method (UPLC-MS/MS) was developed and validated to quantify gomisin D in rat plasma for a pharmacokinetic and bioavailability study. Acetonitrile was used to precipitate plasma proteins. Separations were performed on a BEH C18 column with a gradient mobile phase comprising of acetonitrile and water (0.1% formic acid). An electrospray ionization source was applied and operated in the positive ion mode. The multiple reaction monitoring mode (MRM) was utilized to quantify gomisin D and nomilin (internal standard, IS) using the transitions of m/z 531.2 → 383.1 and m/z 515.3 → 161.0, respectively. The calibration curve was linear over the working range from 1 to 4000 ng/mL (R² = 0.993). The intra- and interday precision ranged from 1.9% to 12.9%. The extraction recovery of gomisin D was in the range of 79.2–86.3%. The validated UPLC-MS/MS method was then used to obtain the pharmacokinetic characteristics of gomisin D after intravenous (5 mg/kg) and intragastric (50 mg/kg) administration to rats. The bioavailability of gomisin D was 107.6%, indicating that this compound may become a promising intragastrical medication. Our results provided useful information for further preclinical studies on gomisin D.

Network Pharmacology-Based Investigation of Protective Mechanism of Aster tataricus on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a common clinical condition that badly influences people's health. Recent studies indicated that Aster tataricus (RA) had potential effects on ALI, but the effective components and their mechanism is not clear. In this study, we found that the Fraction-75 eluted from RA extract could significantly protect the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI in mice, including alleviating the severity of lung pathology, attenuating the pulmonary edema, and reducing the release of inflammatory cells. Further ingredient analyses demonstrated that there were mainly 16 components in it, among which 10 components were collected according to their relative peak area and oral bioavailability. Next, the components-disease targets network suggested that the candidate components had extensive associations with 49 known therapeutic targets of ALI, among which 31 targets could be regulated by more than one component. Herein, GO functional and pathway analysis revealed that the common targets were associated with four biological processes, including the inflammatory response to stimulus, cellular process, chemokine biosynthetic process and immune system process. Furthermore, the ELISA validation indicated that the candidate components in RA extract may protect the LPS-induced ALI mainly through inhibiting the release of inflammatory cytokines and promoting the repair of vascular endothelial.

A Network Pharmacology Approach to Uncover the Molecular Mechanisms of Herbal Formula Ban-Xia-Xie-Xin-Tang

Ban-Xia-Xie-Xin-Tang (BXXXT) is a classical formula from Shang-Han-Lun which is one of the earliest books of TCM clinical practice. In this work, we investigated the therapeutic mechanisms of BXXXT for the treatment of multiple diseases using a network pharmacology approach. Here three BXXXT representative diseases (colitis, diabetes mellitus, and gastric cancer) were discussed, and we focus on in silico methods that integrate drug-likeness screening, target prioritizing, and multilayer network extending. A total of 140 core targets and 72 representative compounds were finally identified to elucidate the pharmacology of BXXXT formula. After constructing multilayer networks, a good overlap between BXXXT nodes and disease nodes was observed at each level, and the network-based proximity analysis shows that the relevance between the formula targets and disease genes was significant according to the shortest path distance (SPD) and a random walk with restart (RWR) based scores for each disease. We found that there were 22 key pathways significantly associated with BXXXT, and the therapeutic effects of BXXXT were likely addressed by regulating a combination of targets in a modular pattern. Furthermore, the synergistic effects among BXXXT herbs were highlighted by elucidating the molecular mechanisms of individual herbs, and the traditional theory of "Jun-Chen-Zuo-Shi" of TCM formula was effectively interpreted from a network perspective. The proposed approach provides an effective strategy to uncover the mechanisms of action and combinatorial rules of BXXXT formula in a holistic manner.

Molecular Mechanisms Involved in Oxidative Stress-Associated Liver Injury Induced by Chinese Herbal Medicine: An Experimental Evidence-Based Literature Review and Network Pharmacology Study

Oxidative stress, defined as a disequilibrium between pro-oxidants and antioxidants, can result in histopathological lesions with a broad spectrum, ranging from asymptomatic hepatitis to hepatocellular carcinoma in an orchestrated manner. Although cells are equipped with sophisticated strategies to maintain the redox biology under normal conditions, the abundance of redox-sensitive xenobiotics, such as medicinal ingredients originated from herbs or animals, can dramatically invoke oxidative stress. Growing evidence has documented that the hepatotoxicity can be triggered by traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) during treating various diseases. Meanwhile, TCM-dependent hepatic disorder represents a strong correlation with oxidative stress, especially the persistent accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species. Of note, since TCM-derived compounds with their modulated targets are greatly diversified among themselves, it is complicated to elaborate the potential pathological mechanism. In this regard, data mining approaches, including network pharmacology and bioinformatics enrichment analysis have been utilized to scientifically disclose the underlying pathogenesis. Herein, top 10 principal TCM-modulated targets for oxidative hepatotoxicity including superoxide dismutases (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), reactive oxygen species (ROS), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), Bax, caspase-3, Bcl-2, nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2), and nitric oxide (NO) have been identified. Furthermore, hepatic metabolic dysregulation may be the predominant pathological mechanism involved in TCM-induced hepatotoxic impairment.

Targeting VEGF/VEGFRs Pathway in the Antiangiogenic Treatment of Human Cancers by Traditional Chinese Medicine

Bearing in mind the doctrine of tumor angiogenesis hypothesized by Folkman several decades ago, the fundamental strategy for alleviating numerous cancer indications may be the strengthening application of notable antiangiogenic therapies to inhibit metastasis-related tumor growth. Under physiological conditions, vascular sprouting is a relatively infrequent event unless when specifically stimulated by pathogenic factors that contribute to the accumulation of angiogenic activators such as the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF). Since VEGFs have been identified as the principal cytokine to initiate angiogenesis in tumor growth, synthetic VEGF-targeting medicines containing bevacizumab and sorafenib have been extensively used, but prominent side effects have concomitantly emerged. Traditional Chinese medicines (TCM)–derived agents with distinctive safety profiles have shown their multitarget curative potential by impairing angiogenic stimulatory signaling pathways directly or eliciting synergistically therapeutic effects with anti-angiogenic drugs mainly targeting VEGF-dependent pathways. This review aims to summarize (a) the up-to-date understanding of the role of VEGF/VEGFR in correlation with proangiogenic mechanisms in various tissues and cells; (b) the elaboration of antitumor angiogenesis mechanisms of 4 representative TCMs, including Salvia miltiorrhiza, Curcuma longa, ginsenosides, and Scutellaria baicalensis; and (c) circumstantial clarification of TCM-driven therapeutic actions of suppressing tumor angiogenesis by targeting VEGF/VEGFRs pathway in recent years, based on network pharmacology.

Prediction of the targets of the main components in blood after oral administration ofXanthii Fructus: a network pharmacology study

Xanthii Fructus (XF), a famous traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has been widely used in the treatment of rhinitis and other diseases. However, the targets of the main XF components found in the blood after oral administration of XF extract are still unclear. In the current study, a feasible systems pharmacology method was developed to predict these targets. In accordance with our previous research, XF components were selected including cleomiscosin A, myristic acid, succinic acid, xanthosine, sitostenone, emodin, apigenin, and chrysophanol. Three components, namely emodin, apigenin, and chrysophanol, failed to be detected with target proteins, thus the other five components, namely cleomiscosin A, myristic acid, succinic acid, xanthosine and sitostenone, were eventually chosen for further systematic analysis. Ninety-nine target proteins and fifty-two pathways were found after a series of analyses. The frequency of some target proteins was much higher than that of others; high frequencies were obtained for P15086, P07360, P07195, MAOM_HUMAN (P23368), P35558, P35520, ACE_HUMAN (P12821), C1S_HUMAN (P09871), PH4H_HUMAN (P00439), FPPS_HUMAN (P14324), P50613, P12724, IMPA1_HUMAN (P29218), HXK1_HUMAN (P19367), P14061, and MCR_HUMAN (P08235). The frequency of eight pathways was also high, including Generic Transcription Pathway, RNA Polymerase II Transcription, Metabolism, Metabolism of steroids, Gene expression (Transcription), Cellular responses to stress, Platelet activation, signaling and aggregation, Signaling by Receptor Tyrosine Kinases, and Cellular Senescence. This study identified a common pathway – the Metabolism pathway – for all five XF components. We successfully developed a network pharmacology method to predict the potential targets of the main XF components absorbed in serum after oral administration of XF extract.

This paper developed a network pharmacology method to predict the potential pathways targeted by oral administration of XF extract.