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Wang S, Zeng F, Ma Y, Yu J, Xiang C, Feng X, Wang S, Wang J, Zhao S, Zhu X. Strontium Attenuates Hippocampal Damage via Suppressing Neuroinflammation in High-Fat Diet-Induced NAFLD Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10248. [PMID: 37373395 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) leads to hippocampal damage and causes a variety of physiopathological responses, including the induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), neuroinflammation, and alterations in synaptic plasticity. As an important trace element, strontium (Sr) has been reported to have antioxidant effects, to have anti-inflammatory effects, and to cause the inhibition of adipogenesis. The present study was undertaken to investigate the protective effects of Sr on hippocampal damage in NAFLD mice in order to elucidate the underlying mechanism of Sr in NAFLD. The mouse model of NAFLD was established by feeding mice a high-fat diet (HFD), and the mice were treated with Sr. In the NAFLD mice, we found that treatment with Sr significantly increased the density of c-Fos+ cells in the hippocampus and inhibited the expression of caspase-3 by suppressing ERS. Surprisingly, the induction of neuroinflammation and the increased expression of inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus following an HFD were attenuated by Sr treatment. Sr significantly attenuated the activation of microglia and astrocytes induced by an HFD. The expression of phospho-p38, ERK, and NF-κB was consistently significantly increased in the HFD group, and treatment with Sr decreased their expression. Moreover, Sr prevented HFD-induced damage to the ultra-structural synaptic architecture. This study implies that Sr has beneficial effects on repairing the damage to the hippocampus induced by an HFD, revealing that Sr could be a potential candidate for protection from neural damage caused by NAFLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Fangyuan Zeng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Yue Ma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Jiaojiao Yu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Chenyao Xiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Xiao Feng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Songlin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Jianguo Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Shanting Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
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Guan D, Zhao L, Shi X, Ma X, Chen Z. Copper in cancer: From pathogenesis to therapy. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 163:114791. [PMID: 37105071 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the basic trace elements for the structure and metabolism of human tissue is copper. However, as a heavy metal, excessive intake or abnormal accumulation of copper in the body can cause inevitable damage to the organism because copper can result in direct injury to various cell components or disruption of the redox balance, eventually leading to cell death. Interestingly, a growing body of research reports that diverse cancers have raised serum and tumor copper levels. Tumor cells depend on more copper for their metabolism than normal cells, and a decrease in copper or copper overload can have a detrimental effect on tumor cells. New modalities for identifying and characterizing copper-dependent signals offer translational opportunities for tumor therapy, but their mechanisms remain unclear. Therefore, this article summarizes what we currently know about the correlation between copper and cancer and describes the characteristics of copper metabolism in tumor cells and the prospective application of copper-derived therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Defeng Guan
- The First Clinical Medical School of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Gansu key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine and Embryology, Lanzhou, China
| | - Lihui Zhao
- The First Clinical Medical School of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Gansu key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine and Embryology, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xin Shi
- The First Clinical Medical School of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Gansu key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine and Embryology, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xiaoling Ma
- The First Clinical Medical School of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Gansu key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine and Embryology, Lanzhou, China.
| | - Zhou Chen
- The First Clinical Medical School of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.
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In Vitro Evaluation of the Cytotoxic Potential of Thiosemicarbazide Coordinating Compounds in Hepatocyte Cell Culture. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020366. [PMID: 36830902 PMCID: PMC9953081 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer is a global medical problem and, despite research efforts in the field of tumor treatment, there is currently a shortage of specific anticancer drugs. Most anticancer drugs show significant side effects. The liver is the organ that has central functions in drug metabolism, being a major target of the harmful action of anticancer compounds. In this context, it is essential to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of potential anticancer substances. Therefore, hepatotoxicity and hepatocyte viability were determined in vitro to evaluate the action of seven new local thiosemicarbazide coordination compounds (CCT) on normal liver cells. Doxorubicin was used as a reference substance. The control group consisted of hepatocytes not exposed to CCT action. The cell viability of hepatocytes treated with CCT decreased significantly by 5-12% compared to the control, but was statistically significantly higher by 5-14% compared to doxorubicin, except after CMD-8 and CMT-67 influence, when it does not change. Thus, new local CCT had a selective effect on hepatocytes in vitro and were less hepatotoxic compared to doxorubicin, which may be the basis for further study of its potential in anticancer drugs.
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Alshamrani M. Recent advances and therapeutic journey of pyridine-based Cu(II) complexes as potent anticancer agents: a review (2015–2022). J COORD CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/00958972.2022.2164190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Meshal Alshamrani
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
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Lan H, Song J, Yuan J, Xing A, Zeng D, Hao Y, Zhang Z, Feng S. Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, DNA Binding, and Molecular Docking of Hybrid 4,6-Dihydrazone Pyrimidine Derivatives as Antitumor Agents. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 28:molecules28010187. [PMID: 36615380 PMCID: PMC9822369 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28010187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In the present paper, on the basis of molecular hybridization, a series of 4,6-dihydrazone pyrimidine derivatives containing the pyridine moiety were synthesized, structurally characterized, and evaluated in vitro for their antitumor activity. According to the results, all the tested compounds demonstrated broad-spectrum antitumor activity against selected tumor cell lines (MCF-7, BGC-823, A549, and BEL-7402) and no obvious toxicity toward normal cells HL-7702. In particular, compounds 10a and 10f were found to be the most promising antitumor agents among the tested compounds against BGC-823 cells (IC50 = 9.00 μM and 7.89 μM) and BEL-7402 cells (IC50 = 6.70 μM and 7.66 μM), respectively. Compounds 10a and 10f exhibited higher potency against BGC-823 and BEL-7402 than the positive control 5-FU (IC50 = 15.18 μM and 15.81 μM). Further mechanism investigations demonstrated that compounds 10a and 10f could significantly increase the level of cellular ROS and induce early apoptosis of BGC-823 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, the DNA binding results from UV/Vis, CD spectroscopy, and molecular docking studies indicated that 10a and 10f bind with DNA via groove binding and partial intercalation. These results demonstrated that 10a and 10f may serve as novel lead compounds for the discovery of more dihydrazone pyrimidine derivatives with improved antitumor potency and selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hairong Lan
- School of Pharmacy, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Junying Song
- Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Juan Yuan
- School of Pharmacy, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, China
- Correspondence: (J.Y.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Aiping Xing
- School of Pharmacy, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Dai Zeng
- School of Pharmacy, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Yating Hao
- School of Pharmacy, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Zhenqiang Zhang
- Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, China
- Correspondence: (J.Y.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Shuying Feng
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou 450046, China
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Yin JL, Tao T, Wen ZY, Wang R, Sun MH, Gao C, Chang YJ, Yan S, Qin X, Zhao YH, Wang L, Gao S. Association between pre-diagnostic dietary copper, zinc, and copper-to-zinc ratio and severity of ovarian cancer. Front Nutr 2022; 9:1003675. [PMID: 36458167 PMCID: PMC9705584 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1003675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The impact of dietary trace elements intake on ovarian cancer (OC) severity is unknown. OBJECTIVE We firstly explore the relationship between dietary copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and copper-to-zinc (Cu/Zn) ratio and severity of OC. METHODS This cross-sectional study included 701 women from the OC follow-up study between 2015 and 2020. Dietary information was collected by a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The severity information of OC including age at diagnosis, histological type, International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage, and histopathologic grade was ascertained from medical records. Logistic regression model was used to estimate the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of aforementioned associations. RESULTS Among 701 participants, the number of patients age at diagnosis older than 50 were 443 (63.2%). The number of patients diagnosed as serous, III-IV stage, and poorly differentiation OC were 477 (68.05%), 336 (47.93%), and 597 (85.16%), respectively. In addition, compared with the lowest tertile intake, higher possibility of non-serous OC was associated with the pre-diagnosis dietary Cu (OR = 2.39, 95% CI = 1.28-4.47, p trend < 0.05) and Cu/Zn ratio (OR = 2.06, 95% CI = 1.26-3.39, P trend < 0.05) in the highest tertile intake. The risk of poorly differentiation OC at diagnosis was significant inversely related to dietary Cu intake (OR = 0.40, 95% CI = 0.18-0.88, P trend < 0.05). Besides, the results of subgroup analyses were consistent with the main findings but not all of them showed statistical significance. CONCLUSION Pre-diagnostic dietary Cu and Cu/Zn ratio were contributed to reducing the severity of OC at diagnosis, especially for the risk of serous OC and poorly differentiation OC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Li Yin
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Tao Tao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhao-Yan Wen
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Ran Wang
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Ming-Hui Sun
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Chang Gao
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yu-Jiao Chang
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Shi Yan
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xue Qin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yu-Hong Zhao
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Lan Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Song Gao
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Medical Research on Major Chronic Disease, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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Evaluation of central-metal effect on anticancer activity and mechanism of action of isostructural Cu(II) and Ni(II) complexes containing pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylate. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 245:114897. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Caro-Ramírez JY, Rivas MG, Gonzalez PJ, Williams PAM, Naso LG, Ferrer EG. Copper(II) cation and bathophenanthroline coordination enhance therapeutic effects of naringenin against lung tumor cells. Biometals 2022; 35:1059-1076. [PMID: 35931942 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-022-00422-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The development of new anticancer compounds is one of the challenges of bioinorganic and medicinal chemistry. Naringenin and its metal complexes have been recognized as promising inhibitors of cell proliferation, having enormous potential to act as an antioxidant and antitumorigenic agent. Lung cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed type of cancer. Therefore, this study is devoted to investigate the effects of Cu(II), naringenin (Nar), binary Cu(II)-naringenin complex (CuNar), and the Cu(II)-naringenin containing bathophenanthroline as an auxiliary ligand (CuNarBatho) on adenocarcinoma human alveolar basal epithelial cells (A549 cells) that are used as models for the study of drug therapies against lung cancer. The ternary complex shows selectivity being high cytotoxic against malignant cells. The cell death generated by CuNarBatho involves ROS production, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and depletion of GSH level and GSH/GSSG ratio. The structure-relationship activity was assessed by comparison with the reported Cu(II)-naringenin-phenanthroline complex. The CuNarBatho complex was synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, molar conductivity, mass spectrometry, thermogravimetric measurements and UV-VIS, FT-IR, EPR, Raman and 1H-NMR spectroscopies. In addition, the binding to bovine serum albumin (BSA) was studied at the physiological conditions (pH = 7.4) by fluorescence spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janetsi Y Caro-Ramírez
- Centro de Química Inorgánica (CEQUINOR, UNLP, CONICET, asociado a CICPBA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1465 La Plata, CP 1900, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María G Rivas
- Departamento de Física, Facultad de Bioquímica Y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral and CONICET, S3000ZAA, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Pablo J Gonzalez
- Departamento de Física, Facultad de Bioquímica Y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral and CONICET, S3000ZAA, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Patricia A M Williams
- Centro de Química Inorgánica (CEQUINOR, UNLP, CONICET, asociado a CICPBA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1465 La Plata, CP 1900, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Luciana G Naso
- Centro de Química Inorgánica (CEQUINOR, UNLP, CONICET, asociado a CICPBA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1465 La Plata, CP 1900, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Evelina G Ferrer
- Centro de Química Inorgánica (CEQUINOR, UNLP, CONICET, asociado a CICPBA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Bv. 120 N° 1465 La Plata, CP 1900, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Mahadevi P, Sumathi S, Metha A, Singh J. Synthesis, spectral, antioxidant, in vitro cytotoxicity activity and thermal analysis of Schiff base metal complexes with 2,2′-Bipyridine-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid as co-ligand. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.133669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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10
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Metal Complexes in Target-Specific Anticancer Therapy: Recent Trends and Challenges. J CHEM-NY 2022. [DOI: 10.1155/2022/9261683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is characterized by abnormal cell differentiation in or on the part of the body. The most commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs are developed to target rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells, but they also damage healthy epithelial cells. This has serious consequences for normal cells and become responsible for the development of various disorders. Several strategies for delivering the cytotoxic drugs to cancerous sites that limit systemic toxicity and other adverse effects have recently been evolved. Among them, biomolecule-conjugated metal complexes-based cancer targeting strategies have shown tremendous advantages in cancer therapy. This review focuses on several chemoselective biomolecules-bound metal complexes as prospective cancer therapy-targeted agents. In this review, we presented the details of the various extra- and intracellular targeting mechanisms in cancer therapy. We also addressed the current clinical issues and recent therapeutic strategies in targeted cancer therapy that may pave a way for the future direction of metal complexes-based targeted cancer therapy.
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Baishya T, Sharma P, Gomila RM, Frontera A, Barceló-Oliver M, Verma AK, Bhattacharyya MK. Fumarato and Phthalato Bridged Dinuclear Metal-Organic Cu(II) and Mn(II) Compounds involving Infinite Fumarate-water Assemblies and Unusual Structure-guiding H-bonded Synthons: Antiproliferative Evaluation and Theoretical Studies. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2nj01860h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Two new dinuclear coordination compounds viz. [Cu2(µ-fum)(phen)2(H2O)6](fum)•6H2O (1) and [Mn2(µ-phth)2(phen)4]•2H2O (2) (phen = 1,10-phenanthroline, fum = fumarate and phth = phthalate) have been synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, single...
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Copper(II) perchlorate complexes with antipyrine: synthesis, structure, cytotoxicity and DFT calculations. MENDELEEV COMMUNICATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mencom.2022.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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13
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Machado PHA, Paixão DA, Lino RC, de Souza TR, de Souza Bontempo NJ, Sousa LM, Van Petten de Vasconcelos Azevedo F, Orsolin PC, Lima PMAP, Martins IC, da Costa Guerra JF, Teixeira SC, Araújo TG, Goulart LR, Morelli S, Guerra W, de Oliveira Júnior RJ. A selective Cu II complex with 4-fluorophenoxyacetic acid hydrazide and phenanthroline displays DNA-cleaving and pro-apoptotic properties in cancer cells. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24450. [PMID: 34961767 PMCID: PMC8712526 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03909-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The thin line between efficacy and toxicity has challenged cancer therapy. As copper is an essential micronutrient and is important to tumor biology, CuII complexes emerged as an alternative to chemotherapy; however, its biological properties need to be better understood. Thus, we report in vitro the antitumor effects of two CuII complexes named [Cu(4-fh)(phen)(ClO4)2] (complex 1) and [Cu(4-nh)(phen)(ClO4)2]·H2O (complex 2), in which 4-fh = 4-fluorophenoxyacetic acid hydrazide; 4-nh = 4-nitrobenzoic hydrazide and phen = 1,10-phenanthroline. Both complexes presented cytotoxic activity against tumor cells, but only complex 1 showed significant selectivity. Complex 1 also induced DNA-damage, led to G0/G1 arrest and triggered apoptosis, which was initiated by an autophagy dysfunction. The significant in vitro selectivity and the action mechanism of complex 1 are noteworthy and reveal this prodrug as promising for anticancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ricardo Campos Lino
- Instituto de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | | | | | - Luana Munique Sousa
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Samuel Cota Teixeira
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia , Uberlândia, MG, Brazil.
| | | | - Luiz Ricardo Goulart
- Instituto de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | - Sandra Morelli
- Instituto de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | - Wendell Guerra
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
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Depicting the DNA Binding and Cytotoxicity Studies against Human Colorectal Cancer of Aquabis (1-Formyl-2-Naphtholato-k2O,O′) Copper(II): A Biophysical and Molecular Docking Perspective. CRYSTALS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst12010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we attempted to examine the biological activity of the copper(II)–based small molecule aquabis (1-formyl-2-naphtholato-k2O,O′)copper(II) (1) against colon cancer. The characterization of complex 1 was established by analytical and spectral methods in accordance with the single-crystal X-ray results. A monomeric unit of complex 1 exists in an O4 (H2O) coordination environment with slightly distorted square pyramidal geometry (τ = ~0.1). The interaction of complex 1 with calf thymus DNA (ctDNA) was determined by employing various biophysical techniques, which revealed that complex 1 binds to ctDNA at the minor groove with a binding constant of 2.38 × 105 M–1. The cytotoxicity of complex 1 towards human colorectal cell line (HCT116) was evaluated by the MTT assay, which showed an IC50 value of 11.6 μM after treatment with complex 1 for 24 h. Furthermore, the apoptotic effect induced by complex 1 was validated by DNA fragmentation pattern, which clarified that apoptosis might be regulated through the mitochondrial-mediated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing DNA damage pathway. Additionally, molecular docking was also carried out to confirm the recognition of complex 1 at the minor groove.
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15
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Leite CM, Honorato J, Martin ACBM, Silveira RG, Colombari FM, Amaral JC, Costa AR, Cominetti MR, Plutín AM, de Aguiar D, Vaz BG, Batista AA. Experimental and Theoretical DFT Study of Cu(I)/ N, N-Disubstituted- N'-acylthioureato Anticancer Complexes: Actin Cytoskeleton and Induction of Death by Apoptosis in Triple-Negative Breast Tumor Cells. Inorg Chem 2021; 61:664-677. [PMID: 34928593 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c03389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Six complexes with the general formula [Cu(acylthioureato)(PPh3)2] were synthesized and characterized using spectroscopic techniques (IR, UV/visible, and 1D and 2D NMR), mass spectrometry, elemental analysis, and X-ray diffraction. Interpretation of the in vitro cytotoxicity data of Cu(I) complexes took into account their stability in cell culture medium. DFT calculations showed that NMR properties, such as the shielding of carbon atoms, are affected by relativistic effects, supported by the ZORA Hamiltonian in the theoretical calculations. Additionally, the calculation of the energies of the frontier molecular orbitals predicted that the structural changes of the acylthiourea ligands did not cause marked changes in the reactivity descriptors. All complexes were cytotoxic to the evaluated tumor cell lines [MDA-MB-231 (triple-negative breast cancer, TNBC), MCF-7 (breast cancer), and A549 (lung cancer)]. In the MDA-MB-231 cell line, complex 1 significantly altered the cytoskeleton of the cells, reducing the density and promoting the condensation of F-actin filaments. In addition, the compound caused an increase in the percentage of cells in the fragmented DNA region (sub-G0) and induced cell death via the apoptotic pathway starting at the IC50 concentration. Taken together, the results show that complex 1 has cytotoxic and apoptotic effects on TNBC cells, which is a cell line originating from an aggressive, difficult-to-treat breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celisnolia M Leite
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo 13565-905, Brazil
| | - João Honorato
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo 13565-905, Brazil
| | | | - Rafael G Silveira
- Instituto Federal Goiano, Campus Ceres, Ceres, Goiás 76300000, Brazil
| | - Felippe M Colombari
- Centro Nacional de Pesquisa em Energia e Materiais, Laboratório Nacional de Biorrenováveis, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Jéssica C Amaral
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Analu R Costa
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Márcia R Cominetti
- Departamento de Gerontologia, Universidade Federal de São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Ana M Plutín
- Laboratório de Síntesis Orgánica, Facultad de Química, Universidad de La Habana - UH, Habana 10400, Cuba
| | - Debora de Aguiar
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiania, Goiás 74690900, Brazil
| | - Boniek G Vaz
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiania, Goiás 74690900, Brazil
| | - Alzir A Batista
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo 13565-905, Brazil.,Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiania, Goiás 74690900, Brazil
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16
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Study on electrochemical behavior and in vitro anticancer effect of Co(II) and Zn(II) complexes containing pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylate. Inorganica Chim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2021.120549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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17
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The Cytotoxic Effect of Copper (II) Complexes with Halogenated 1,3-Disubstituted Arylthioureas on Cancer and Bacterial Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111415. [PMID: 34768844 PMCID: PMC8584173 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of eight copper (II) complexes with 3-(4-chloro-3-nitrophenyl)thiourea were designed and synthesized. The cytotoxic activity of all compounds was assessed in three human cancer cell lines (SW480, SW620, PC3) and human normal keratinocytes (HaCaT). The complexes 1, 3, 5, 7 and 8 were cytotoxic to the studied tumor cells in the low micromolar range, without affecting the normal cells. The complexes 1, 3, 7 and 8 induced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release in all cancer cell lines, but not in the HaCaT cells. They provoked early apoptosis in pathological cells, especially in SW480 and PC3 cells. The ability of compounds 1, 3, 7 and 8 to diminish interleukin-6 (IL-6) concentration in a cell was established. For the first time, the influence of the most promising Cu (II) complexes on intensities of detoxifying and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging the enzymes of tumor cells was studied. The cytotoxic effect of all copper (II) conjugates against standard and hospital bacterial strains was also proved.
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18
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Khan MH, Cai M, Deng J, Yu P, Liang H, Yang F. Correction: Khan et al. Anticancer Function and ROS-Mediated Multi-Targeting Anticancer Mechanisms of Copper (II) 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde Complexes. Molecules 2019, 24, 2544. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26196070. [PMID: 34641633 PMCID: PMC8512314 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26196070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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19
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Xie KF, Li LL, Li WD, Xu X, Dong WK. A NOVEL TETRANUCLEAR NICKEL(II) SALAMO-BASED
COMPLEX ADOPTING TWO OPEN CUBIC STRUCTURES:
SYNTHESIS, CHRACTERIZATION, DFT CALCULATION, HIRSHFELD ANALYSIS, AND FLUORESCENT PROPERTIES. J STRUCT CHEM+ 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s002247662106007x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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20
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Wang R, Zhu Y, Chen J, Wang Y, Song X, Wu Y, Jin F, Wang Y. The quinazoline derivative, 04NB-03, induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells in a reactive oxygen species-dependent manner. Chem Biol Interact 2021; 338:109371. [PMID: 33582112 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2021.109371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most deadly malignancies worldwide. However, current therapeutic drugs for HCC are far from satisfactory. Thus, the development of new drugs is urgently needed. In this study, we identified a novel quinazoline derivative, 04NB-03, with potent anti-HCC activities both in vitro and in vivo. 04NB-03 effectively suppressed the viability and proliferation of HCC cells. It induced both cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase and apoptosis in concentration- and time-dependent manners. Moreover, 04NB-03 treatment significantly reduced xenograft tumor growth without notable toxic effects. Mechanistically, 04NB-03 induced endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in concentration- and time-dependent manners. Scavenging the ROS reversed 04NB-03-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Taken together, these results indicate that the quinazoline derivative, 04NB-03, inhibits the growth of HCC cells through the induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in an ROS-dependent manner. 04NB-03 is, therefore, a potential small molecule candidate for the development of antitumor drugs targeting HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongze Wang
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Yexuan Zhu
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Jingyi Chen
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Yiliang Wang
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Xiaowei Song
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Yanting Wu
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Fujun Jin
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine Postdoctoral Research Station, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
| | - Yifei Wang
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; Key Laboratory of Virology of Guangzhou, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
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21
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Luo Y, Fu Y, Huang Z, Li M. Transition metals and metal complexes in autophagy and diseases. J Cell Physiol 2021; 236:7144-7158. [PMID: 33694161 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Transition metals refer to the elements in the d and ds blocks of the periodic table. Since the success of cisplatin and auranofin, transition metal-based compounds have become a prospective source for drug development, particularly in cancer treatment. In recent years, extensive studies have shown that numerous transition metal-based compounds could modulate autophagy, promising a new therapeutic strategy for metal-related diseases and the design of metal-based agents. Copper, zinc, and manganese, which are common components in physiological pathways, play important roles in the progression of cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, enrichment of copper, zinc, or manganese can regulate autophagy. Thus, we summarized the current advances in elucidating the mechanisms of some metals/metal-based compounds and their functions in autophagy regulation, which is conducive to explore the intricate roles of autophagy and exploit novel therapeutic drugs for human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuping Luo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuanyuan Fu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiying Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Min Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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22
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Xu X, Wang JF, Bian RN, Zhao L. Synthesis, structure, Hirshfeld analysis and fluorescence properties of a new asymmetric salamo-based ligand and its Cu(II) complex involving oxime oxygen coordination. J COORD CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/00958972.2020.1822524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Xu
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ji-Fa Wang
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ruo-Nan Bian
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Zhao
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, People’s Republic of China
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23
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Structure-Based Design of Biologically Active Compounds. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 25:molecules25143115. [PMID: 32650470 PMCID: PMC7397263 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25143115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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24
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Krasnovskaya O, Naumov A, Guk D, Gorelkin P, Erofeev A, Beloglazkina E, Majouga A. Copper Coordination Compounds as Biologically Active Agents. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E3965. [PMID: 32486510 PMCID: PMC7312030 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21113965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Copper-containing coordination compounds attract wide attention due to the redox activity and biogenicity of copper ions, providing multiple pathways of biological activity. The pharmacological properties of metal complexes can be fine-tuned by varying the nature of the ligand and donor atoms. Copper-containing coordination compounds are effective antitumor agents, constituting a less expensive and safer alternative to classical platinum-containing chemotherapy, and are also effective as antimicrobial, antituberculosis, antimalarial, antifugal, and anti-inflammatory drugs. 64Сu-labeled coordination compounds are promising PET imaging agents for diagnosing malignant pathologies, including head and neck cancer, as well as the hallmark of Alzheimer's disease amyloid-β (Aβ). In this review article, we summarize different strategies for possible use of coordination compounds in the treatment and diagnosis of various diseases, and also various studies of the mechanisms of antitumor and antimicrobial action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Krasnovskaya
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie gory 1,3, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.N.); (D.G.); (A.E.); (E.B.); (A.M.)
- Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology (MISIS), Leninskiy prospect 4, 101000 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Alexey Naumov
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie gory 1,3, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.N.); (D.G.); (A.E.); (E.B.); (A.M.)
| | - Dmitry Guk
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie gory 1,3, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.N.); (D.G.); (A.E.); (E.B.); (A.M.)
| | - Peter Gorelkin
- Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology (MISIS), Leninskiy prospect 4, 101000 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Alexander Erofeev
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie gory 1,3, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.N.); (D.G.); (A.E.); (E.B.); (A.M.)
- Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology (MISIS), Leninskiy prospect 4, 101000 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Elena Beloglazkina
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie gory 1,3, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.N.); (D.G.); (A.E.); (E.B.); (A.M.)
| | - Alexander Majouga
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie gory 1,3, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.N.); (D.G.); (A.E.); (E.B.); (A.M.)
- Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology (MISIS), Leninskiy prospect 4, 101000 Moscow, Russia;
- Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia, Miusskaya Ploshchad’ 9, 125047 Moscow, Russia
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25
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2-Methylimidazole Copper Iminodiacetates for the Adsorption of Oxygen and Catalytic Oxidation of Cyclohexane. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25061286. [PMID: 32178320 PMCID: PMC7143979 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25061286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The mixed-ligand copper(II) iminodiacetates [Cu(ida)(2-mim)(H2O)2]·H2O (1), [Cu(ida)(2-mim)2]·2H2O (2), [Cu(ida)(2-mim)(H2O)]n·4.5nH2O (3), and [Cu2(ida)2(2-mim)2]n·nH2O (4) (H2ida = iminodiacetic acid, 2-mim = 2-methylimidazole) were obtained from neutral or alkaline solutions at different temperatures. The novel complex 4 contains very small holes with diameters of 2.9 Å, which can adsorb O2 selectively and reversibly between 1.89 to 29.90 bars, compared with the different gases of N2, H2, CO2, and CH4. This complex is stable up to 150 °C based on thermal analyses and XRD patterns. The four complexes show catalytic activities that facilitate the conversion of cyclohexane to cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone with hydrogen peroxide in a solution. The total conversion is 31% for 4.
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