Toxicokinetic Study of a Gastroprotective Dose of Capsaicin by HPLC-FLD Method

A comprehensive review of capsaicin: Biosynthesis, industrial productions, processing to applications, and clinical uses

Capsaicin, the main bioactive compound in chili peppers, is widely known for its diverse pharmacological effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. Despite its therapeutic potential, the low yield of natural capsaicin and the challenges in producing it on a large-scale limit broader industrial and clinical applications. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of capsaicin's biosynthesis in plants, chemical and enzymatic synthesis methods, and recent advancements in green production technologies. In addition, innovative applications such as drug delivery systems using nanoencapsulation and micelles are being developed to improve the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of capsaicin. Key findings highlight the use of capsaicin in food preservation, packaging, and pharmaceutical formulations. Future research should prioritize the refinement of synthetic routes, innovative delivery technologies, and the development of sustainable industrial processes to fully exploit the therapeutic and commercial potential of capsaicin.

Gastric Carcinogenesis and Potential Role of the Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) Receptor: An Observational Histopathological Study

The potential role of the transient receptor potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) non-selective cation channel in gastric carcinogenesis remains unclear. The main objective of this study was to evaluate TRPV1 expression in gastric cancer (GC) and precursor lesions compared with controls. Patient inclusion was based on a retrospective review of pathology records. Patients were subdivided into five groups: Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)-associated gastritis with gastric intestinal metaplasia (GIM) (n = 12), chronic atrophic gastritis (CAG) with GIM (n = 13), H. pylori-associated gastritis without GIM (n = 19), GC (n = 6) and controls (n = 5). TRPV1 expression was determined with immunohistochemistry and was significantly higher in patients with H. pylori-associated gastritis compared with controls (p = 0.002). TRPV1 expression was even higher in the presence of GIM compared with patients without GIM and controls (p < 0.001). There was a complete loss of TRPV1 expression in patients with GC. TRPV1 expression seems to contribute to gastric-mucosal inflammation and precursors of GC, which significantly increases in cancer precursor lesions but is completely lost in GC. These findings suggest TRPV1 expression to be a potential marker for precancerous conditions and a target for individualized treatment. Longitudinal studies are necessary to further address the role of TRPV1 in gastric carcinogenesis.

Capsaicinoids in Food: An Update on Pretreatment and Analysis Methods since 2010

Capsaicinoids, whose basic chemical structure is the vanilla amide of n-nonanoic acid, are responsible for chili pepper fruits' spicy flavor (pungency) and multiple pharmacological actions. Capsaicinoids are widely used to produce intense flavor food additives due to their sensory attributes of pungency, aroma, and color. To ensure strict quality control for capsaicinoids and maximize their positive effects, valid and sensitive pretreatment and determination methods are urgently needed. Consequently, this review provides a comprehensive summary of capsaicinoids' preparation and analytical technologies in food samples. Pretreatment techniques mainly include liquid-liquid extraction, solid-phase extraction, solid-phase microextraction, and dispersive solid-phase microextraction, among others. Detection methods include liquid chromatography coupled with different detectors, gas chromatography, electrochemical sensor methods, capillary electrophoresis, etc. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of various pretreatment and analytical methods are compared and discussed. Thus, the present paper has attempted to shed light on novel and traditionalpretreatment methods and determination approaches and provided proper comments about their new developments and applications.

Dispersive magnetic solid-phase extraction for capsaicinoid compounds in human serum using LC-HRMS: targeted and non-targeted approaches

A new analytical method based on the use of dispersive magnetic solid-phase extraction (DMSPE) is described for the preconcentration of capsaicin (CAP), dihydrocapsaicin (DCAP), and N-vanillylnonanamide (PCAP) from human serum samples. The influence of several experimental factors affecting the adsorption (nature and amount of magnetic material, adsorption time, and pH) and desorption (nature of solvent, its volume and desorption time) steps was studied. Among seven different nanomaterials studied, the best results were obtained using magnetic multiwalled carbon nanotubes, which were characterized by means of spectrometry- and microscopy-based techniques. Analyses were performed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry using electrospray ionization in positive mode (UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS). The developed method was validated by obtaining several parameters, including linearity (0.3-300 μg L^-1 range), and limits of detection which were 0.1, 0.15, and 0.17 μg L^-1 for CAP, DCAP, and PCAP, respectively. The repeatability of the method, expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD, n = 7), varied from 3.4 to 11%. The serum samples were also studied through a non-targeted approach in a search for capsaicinoid metabolites and related compounds. With this objective, the fragmentation pathway of this family of compounds was initially studied and a strategy was established for the identification of novel or less studied capsaicinoid-derived compounds.

The Relative Importance of the Small Intestine and the Liver in Phase II Metabolic Transformations and Elimination of p-Nitrophenol Administered in Different Doses in the Rat

Intestinal and hepatic function have been investigated in phase II metabolic reactions and elimination of p-nitrophenol (PNP) in the rat. A jejunal loop was cannulated and recirculated with isotonic solutions containing PNP in different concentrations (0, 20, 100, 500, 1000 µM). Samples were obtained from the perfusate at given intervals. To investigate the metabolic and excretory functions of the liver, the bile duct was cannulated, and the bile was collected. Metabolites of PNP were determined by validated HPLC (high pressure liquid chromatography) methods. The results demonstrated the relative importance of the small intestine and the liver in phase II metabolic transformations and elimination of PNP. There were significant differences between the luminal and biliary appearances of p-nitrophenol-glucuronide (PNP-G) and p-nitrophenol–sulfate (PNP-S). The PNP-G appeared in the intestinal lumen at the lower PNP concentrations (20 µM and 100 µM) at higher rate than in the bile. No significant difference was found between the intestinal and the biliary excretion of PNP-G when PNP was administered at a concentration of 500 µM. However, a reverse ratio of these parameters was observed at the administration of 1000 µM PNP. The results indicated that both the small intestine and the liver might play an important role in phase II metabolic reactions and elimination of PNP. However, the relative importance of the small intestine and the liver can be dependent on the dose of drugs.

Capsaicin—the major bioactive ingredient of chili peppers: bio-efficacy and delivery systems

The mechanisms of bio-efficacy of capsaicin and delivery systems with enhanced bioavailability were reviewed.