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Xie J, Luo M, Chen Q, Zhang Q, Qin L, Wang Y, Zhao Y, He Y. Hypolipidemic effect and gut microbiota regulation of Gypenoside aglycones in rats fed a high-fat diet. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 328:118066. [PMID: 38499259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2024.118066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino has traditional applications in Chinese medicine to treat lipid abnormalities. Gypenosides (GPs), the main bioactive components of Gynostemma pentaphyllum, have been reported to exert hypolipidemic effects through multiple mechanisms. The lipid-lowering effects of GPs may be attributed to the aglycone portion resulting from hydrolysis of GPs by the gut microbiota. However, to date, there have been no reports on whether gypenoside aglycones (Agl), the primary bioactive constituents, can ameliorate hyperlipidemia by modulating the gut microbiota. AIM OF THE STUDY This study explored the potential therapeutic effects of gypenoside aglycone (Agl) in a rat model of high-fat diet (HFD)-induced hyperlipidemia. METHODS A hyperlipidemic rat model was established by feeding rats with a high-fat diet. Agl was administered orally, and serum lipid levels were analyzed. Molecular techniques, including RT-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and fecal microbiota sequencing, were used to investigate the effects of Agl on lipid metabolism and gut microbiota composition. RESULTS Agl administration significantly reduced serum levels of total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and mitigated hepatic damage induced by HFD. Molecular investigations have revealed the modulation of key lipid metabolism genes and proteins by Agl. Notably, Agl treatment enriched the gut microbiota with beneficial genera, including Lactobacillus, Akkermansia, and Blautia and promoted specific shifts in Lactobacillus murinus, Firmicutes bacterium CAG:424, and Allobaculum stercoricanis. CONCLUSION This comprehensive study established Agl as a promising candidate for the treatment of hyperlipidemia. It also exhibits remarkable hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective properties. The modulation of lipid metabolism-related genes, along with the restoration of gut microbiota balance, provides mechanistic insights. Thus, Agl has great potential for clinical applications in hyperlipidemia management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Xie
- Guizhou Engineering Research Center of Industrial Key-Technology for Dendrobium Nobile, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; 2011 Cooperative Inovational Center for Guizhou Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnic Medicine Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; Department of Medical Genetics, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
| | - Mingxia Luo
- Guizhou Engineering Research Center of Industrial Key-Technology for Dendrobium Nobile, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; 2011 Cooperative Inovational Center for Guizhou Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnic Medicine Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
| | - Qiuyi Chen
- Guizhou Engineering Research Center of Industrial Key-Technology for Dendrobium Nobile, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; 2011 Cooperative Inovational Center for Guizhou Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnic Medicine Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
| | - Qianru Zhang
- Guizhou Engineering Research Center of Industrial Key-Technology for Dendrobium Nobile, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; 2011 Cooperative Inovational Center for Guizhou Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnic Medicine Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
| | - Lin Qin
- Guizhou Engineering Research Center of Industrial Key-Technology for Dendrobium Nobile, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; 2011 Cooperative Inovational Center for Guizhou Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnic Medicine Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
| | - Yuhe Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
| | - Yongxia Zhao
- Guizhou Engineering Research Center of Industrial Key-Technology for Dendrobium Nobile, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; 2011 Cooperative Inovational Center for Guizhou Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnic Medicine Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
| | - Yuqi He
- Guizhou Engineering Research Center of Industrial Key-Technology for Dendrobium Nobile, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China; 2011 Cooperative Inovational Center for Guizhou Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnic Medicine Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, China.
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Li YM, Shen CY, Jiang JG. Sedative and hypnotic effects of the saponins from a traditional edible plant Liriope spicata Lour. in PCPA-induced insomnia mice. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 327:118049. [PMID: 38484954 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2024.118049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Liriope spicata Lour., a species listed in the catalogue of 'Medicinal and Edible Homologous Species', is traditionally used for the treatment of fatigue, restlessness, insomnia and constipation. AIM OF THE STUDY This study is aimed to evaluate the sedative and hypnotic effect of the saponins from a natural plant L. spicata Lour. in vivo. MATERIALS AND METHODS The total saponin (LSTS) and purified saponin (LSPS) were extracted from L. spicata, followed by a thorough analysis of their major components using the HPLC-MS. Subsequently, the therapeutic efficacy of LSTS and LSPS was evaluated by the improvement of anxiety and depression behaviors of the PCPA-induced mice. RESULTS LSTS and LSPS exhibited similar saponin compositions but differ in their composition ratios, with liriopesides-type saponins accounting for a larger proportion in LSTS. Studies demonstrated that both LSTS and LSPS can extend sleep duration and immobility time, while reducing sleep latency in PCPA-induced mice. However, there was no significant difference in weight change among the various mice groups. Elisa results indicated that the LSTS and LSPS could decrease levels of NE, DA, IL-6, and elevate the levels of 5-HT, NO, PGD2 and TNF-α in mice plasma. LSTS enhanced the expression of neurotransmitter receptors, while LSPS exhibited a more pronounced effect in regulating the expression of inflammatory factors. In conclusion, the saponins derived from L. spicata might hold promise as ingredients for developing health foods with sedative and hypnotic effects, potentially related to the modulation of serotonergic and GABAAergic neuron expression, as well as immunomodulatory process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Meng Li
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Chun-Yan Shen
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China; Southern Medical University, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Jian-Guo Jiang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China.
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Zhao WX, Wang T, Zhang YN, Chen Q, Wang Y, Xing YQ, Zheng J, Duan CC, Chen LJ, Zhao HJ, Wang SJ. Molecular Mechanism of Polysaccharides Extracted from Chinese Medicine Targeting Gut Microbiota for Promoting Health. Chin J Integr Med 2024; 30:171-180. [PMID: 35583582 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-022-3522-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The accumulating evidence revealed that gut microbiota plays an important role in pathological process of disease including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, heart failure, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Polysaccharides extracted from Chinese medicine (CM) can not only alleviate pathological status but also promote health by anti-inflammatory, regulating immunity, lowering blood glucose and lipids, anti-cancer, and anti-oxidation. The alterations of gut microbiota composition and metabolism pathways are the potential mechanisms of CM polysaccharides treatment. In addition, they exert functions through gut-organ axis or play an indirect role by synergistic actions with other drugs or components mediated by gut microbiota. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms of CM polysaccharides interacted with intestinal microbial inhabitants as potential prebiotics for promoting health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Xiao Zhao
- School of Nursing, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Tong Wang
- School of Nursing, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Ya-Nan Zhang
- Shandong Co-innovation Center of Classic Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Qian Chen
- Shandong Co-innovation Center of Classic Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Yuan Wang
- Shandong Co-innovation Center of Classic Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Yan-Qing Xing
- School of Nursing, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Jun Zheng
- School of Nursing, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Chen-Chen Duan
- School of Nursing, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Li-Jun Chen
- School of Nursing, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
| | - Hai-Jun Zhao
- Shandong Co-innovation Center of Classic Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China.
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China.
| | - Shi-Jun Wang
- Shandong Co-innovation Center of Classic Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ji'nan, 250355, China
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Effects of ShenLing BaiZhu San Supplementation on Gut Microbiota and Oxidative Stress in Rats with Ulcerative Colitis. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2021; 2021:3960989. [PMID: 34630607 PMCID: PMC8500740 DOI: 10.1155/2021/3960989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of gut microbiota and antioxidation of Shenling Baizhu San (SLBZS) as a supplement in a rat model of ulcerative colitis (UC) induced by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS). Acute intestinal inflammation was induced in 40 male SD rats aged 4 weeks with 100 mg/kg TNBS, and then three dosages of SLBZS (0.5 g/kg, 1 g/kg, and 1.5 g/kg) were administered for eight days, respectively. Faecal microbiome composition was assessed by 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing. The result indicated that SLBZS could reduce the diversity of gut microbiota and increased its abundance. At the genus level, the relative abundance of SCFAs producing bacteria including Prevotella and Oscillospira increased, while the relative abundance of opportunistic pathogens including Desulfovibrio and Bilophila decreased. Meanwhile, SLBZS could improve the lesions of colon and significantly reduce the level of MPO, increase the levels of SOD and CAT in rats' serum. These findings revealed that SLBZS was effective and possessed anticolitic activities in a rat model of UC by reducing macroscopical and microscopical colon injury, enhancing antioxidant capacity, and regulating gut microbiota.
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Zhao J, Zhao Q, Lu JZ, Ye D, Mu S, Yang XD, Zhang WD, Ma BL. Natural Nano-Drug Delivery System in Coptidis Rhizoma Extract with Modified Berberine Hydrochloride Pharmacokinetics. Int J Nanomedicine 2021; 16:6297-6311. [PMID: 34552326 PMCID: PMC8451076 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s323685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose This study aimed to evaluate the pharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic effects of the natural nanoparticles (Nnps) isolated from Coptidis Rhizoma extract on berberine hydrochloride (BBR) and systematically explore the related mechanisms. Methods Firstly, Nnps were isolated from Coptidis Rhizoma extract and then an Nnps-BBR complex was prepared. After qualitative and quantitative analysis in terms of size, Zeta potential, morphology, and composition of the Nnps and the Nnps-BBR complex, the effects of the Nnps on the crystallization of BBR were characterized. The effects of the Nnps on the solubility and dissolution of BBR were then evaluated. In addition, the effects of the Nnps on BBR in terms of cellular uptake, transmembrane transport, metabolic stability, and pharmacokinetics in mice were studied. Results The Nnps had an average size of 166.6 ± 1.3 nm and Zeta potential of −12.5 ± 0.2 mV. The Nnps were formed by denaturation of co-existing plant proteins with molecular weight < 30 kDa. The Nnps adsorbed or dispersed BBR, thereby promoting BBR transformation from crystal to amorphous form and improving its solubility and dissolution. The Nnps carried and promoted BBR uptake by human colonic adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells via caveolae-mediated endocytosis, reducing P-gp-mediated efflux of BBR in mice gut sacs and Madin-Darby canine kidney cells stably expressing the transporter P-gp (MDCK-MDR1) cells. Moreover, the Nnps improved BBR metabolic stability in mouse intestinal S9, promoting BBR intestinal absorption in mice, as shown by increased peak BBR concentration (Cmax, 1182.3 vs 310.2 ng/mL) and exposure level (AUC0–12 h, 2842.8 vs 1447.0 ng·h/mL) in mouse portal vein. In addition, the Nnps increased BBR exposure level in mouse livers (95,443.2 vs 43,586.2 ng·h/g liver). Conclusion The proteinaceous nanoparticles isolated from Coptidis Rhizoma extract can form a natural nano-drug delivery system with BBR, thereby significantly improving the pharmacokinetics of oral BBR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing-Ze Lu
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Ye
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Sheng Mu
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Di Yang
- Innovation Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei-Dong Zhang
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, People's Republic of China.,School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Bing-Liang Ma
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, People's Republic of China
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Differences in the Hemolytic Behavior of Two Isomers in Ophiopogon japonicus In Vitro and In Vivo and Their Risk Warnings. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2020:8870656. [PMID: 33381274 PMCID: PMC7755485 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8870656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ophiopogonin D (OPD) and Ophiopogonin D′ (OPD′) are two bioactive ingredients in Ophiopogon japonicus. Previously published studies have often focused on the therapeutic effects related to OPD's antioxidant capacity but underestimated the cytotoxicity-related side effects of OPD′, which may result in unpredictable risks. In this study, we reported another side effect of OPD′, hemolysis, and what was unexpected was that this side effect also appeared with OPD. Although hemolysis effects for saponins are familiar to researchers, the hemolytic behavior of OPD or OPD′ and the interactions between these two isomers are unique. Therefore, we investigated the effects of OPD and OPD′ alone or in combination on the hemolytic behavior in vitro and in vivo and adopted chemical compatibility and proteomics methods to explain the potential mechanism. Meanwhile, to explain the drug-drug interactions (DDIs), molecular modeling was applied to explore the possible common targets. In this study, we reported that OPD′ caused hemolysis both in vitro and in vivo, while OPD only caused hemolysis in vivo. We clarified the differences and DDIs in the hemolytic behavior of the two isomers. An analysis of the underlying mechanism governing this phenomenon showed that hemolysis caused by OPD or OPD′ was related to the destruction of the redox balance of erythrocytes. In vivo, in addition to the redox imbalance, the proteomics data demonstrated that lipid metabolic disorders and mitochondrial energy metabolism are extensively involved by hemolysis. We provided a comprehensive description of the hemolysis of two isomers in Ophiopogon japonicus, and risk warnings related to hemolysis were presented. Our research also provided a positive reference for the development and further research of such bioactive components.
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Fermentation of Danggui Buxue Tang, an ancient Chinese herbal mixture, together with Lactobacillus plantarum enhances the anti-diabetic functions of herbal product. Chin Med 2020; 15:98. [PMID: 32944064 PMCID: PMC7488747 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-020-00379-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Danggui Buxue Tang (DBT), an ancient Chinese herbal decoction containing Astragali Radix and Angelicae Sinensis Radix at a ratio of 5: 1, is prescribed for menopausal women. Flavonoids and its flavonoid glycosides are considered as the major active ingredients within the herbal decoction; however, their amount is not controllable during the preparation. Besides, the aglycons within DBT are believed to have better gut absorption and pharmacological efficacy. Methods The herbal extract of DBT was fermented with Lactobacillus plantarum. The amounts of flavonoid glucosides and its aglycones in the fermented product were analyzed by using UPLC-MS/MS. In addition, in vitro assays were employed to evaluate the efficacy of the fermented DBT in regulating the activities of α-glucosidase, α-amylase and lipase, as well as their antioxidant capacity (DPPH and T-AOC assays) and anti-glycation property (BSA-methylglyoxal, BSA-fructose, and arginine-methylglyoxal models). Results The fermentation of DBT with L. plantarum drove a completed conversion of calycosin-7-O-β-D-glucoside and ononin to calycosin and formononetin, respectively. The chemical transformation could be probably mediated by β-glycosidase within the fermented product. Several in vitro assays corresponding to anti-diabetic functions were compared between parental DBT against its fermented product, which included the activities against α-glucosidase, α-amylase and lipase, as well as anti-oxidation and anti-glycation. The fermented DBT showed increased activities in inhibiting α-glycosidase, suppressing DPPH radical-scavenging and anti-glycation, as compared to the original herbal product. Conclusion These results suggested that DBT being fermented with the probiotic L. plantarum could pave a new direction for fermentation of herbal extract, as to strengthen its pharmacological properties in providing health benefits.
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Synergistic Mechanisms of Constituents in Herbal Extracts during Intestinal Absorption: Focus on Natural Occurring Nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12020128. [PMID: 32028739 PMCID: PMC7076514 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12020128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The systematic separation strategy has long and widely been applied in the research and development of herbal medicines. However, the pharmacological effects of many bioactive constituents are much weaker than those of the corresponding herbal extracts. Thus, there is a consensus that purer herbal extracts are sometimes less effective. Pharmacological loss of purified constituents is closely associated with their significantly reduced intestinal absorption after oral administration. In this review, pharmacokinetic synergies among constituents in herbal extracts during intestinal absorption were systematically summarized to broaden the general understanding of the pharmaceutical nature of herbal medicines. Briefly, some coexisting constituents including plant-produced primary and secondary metabolites, promote the intestinal absorption of active constituents by improving solubility, inhibiting first-pass elimination mediated by drug-metabolizing enzymes or drug transporters, increasing the membrane permeability of enterocytes, and reversibly opening the paracellular tight junction between enterocytes. Moreover, some coexisting constituents change the forms of bioactive constituents via mechanisms including the formation of natural nanoparticles. This review will focus on explaining this new synergistic mechanism. Thus, herbal extracts can be considered mixtures of bioactive compounds and pharmacokinetic synergists. This review may provide ideas and strategies for further research and development of herbal medicines.
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