Cordycepin Isolated from Cordyceps militaris: Its Newly Discovered Herbicidal Property and Potential Plant-Based Novel Alternative to Glyphosate

Insights into the methods for separation and chromatographic determination of nucleotides/nucleosides in Cordyceps spp

Cordyceps genus is entomopathogenic mushrooms that have traditionally been used in ethnomedicine in Asian countries. Nucleosides (Ns), nucleotide(Nt), Nucleobases (Nb) and their analogues play a critically physiological role and have a great potential in drug development, such as pentostatin and cordycepin (COR). Due to their significance bioactivity, several Nt/Ns were used as markers for quality evaluation for medicinal Cordyceps, including adenosine, inosine, guanosine, uridine and COR. Among them, COR is the most considerable adenosine analogue, exhibiting significant therapeutic potential and has many intracellular targets. Nt/Ns contains polar compounds and the phosphate groups of Nt deprotonate and carry negative charges with a broad range of pH values. Recent years, various advanced methods of extraction and separation, and nanomaterials have been developed to extract, isolate and determine these molecules, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) for the extraction, the solid phase extraction (SPE) methods (microextraction SPE (SPME), magnetic SPE (MSPE), and unique SPE materials based on the boronate affinity for the separation, and chromatography methods employing ultraviolet (UV), fluorescence, MS detection and electrospray ionization (ESI), along with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ ionization (MALDI) for the determination. COR derived from adenosine and its structure is very similar to that of 2'-deoxyadenosine (2'-dA) and adenosine, resulting in an incorrect identification, which will influence its therapeutic effects. Therefore, this review primarily focused on the characteristics of Nt/Ns, the advanced methods, strategies, nanomaterials for extracting and determining Nt/Ns (COR in particular) in Cordyceps spp, as well as the methods for distinguishing COR from its structure analogs.

Bioactive compounds from Cordyceps and their therapeutic potential

The Clavicipitaceae family's largest and most diverse genus is Cordyceps. They are most abundant and diverse in humid temperate and tropical forests and have a wide distribution in: Europe, North America, and East and Southeast Asian countries, particularly: Bhutan, China, Japan, Nepal, Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, Tibet, and the Himalayan region of India, and Sikkim. It is a well-known parasitic fungus that feeds on insects and other arthropods belonging to 10 different orders. Over 200 bioactive metabolites, that include: nucleotides and nucleosides, polysaccharides, proteins, polypeptides, amino acids, sterols, and fatty acids, among others have been extracted from Cordyceps spp. demonstrating the phytochemical richness of this genus. These components have been associated with a variety of pharmacological effects, including: anti-microbial, anti-apoptotic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities. In this paper, the bioactivity of various classes of metabolites produced by Cordyceps spp., and their therapeutic properties have been reviewed in an attempt to update the existing literature. Furthermore, one of its nucleoside and a key bioactive compound, cordycepin has been critically elaborated with regard to its biosynthesis pathway and the recently proposed protector-protégé mechanism as well as various biological and pharmacological effects, such as: suppression of purine and nucleic acid biosynthesis, induction of apoptosis, and cell cycle regulation with their mechanism of action. This review provides current knowledge on the bioactive potential of Cordyceps spp.

Cytotoxic activity of cordycepin produced by marine-derived fungus Emericella sp. against HT29 human colon cancer cell lines

Colorectal cancer accounted for the third most common cancer in the world. The search for new drug candidates that can be used for colorectal cancer treatment from marine-derived fungi, Emericella sp. The present study was performed to isolate the cytotoxic compound from Emericella sp. The isolation method was carried out by using a combination of chromatographic techniques to afford compound 1. The cytotoxic activity and the exosome production property were determined by using proliferation and luciferase assay against HT29 CD63 Nluc cells, respectively. The chemical structure of compound 1 was identified as cordycepin based on spectroscopy methods such as mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (1D and 2D NMR) analyses and comparison with authentic spectral data. The biological activity assay showed that cordycepin exhibited cytotoxic activity with an IC50 value of 92.05 µM through proliferation assay, and also inhibited the exosome production by luciferase assay with an IC50 value of 86.47 µM. Cordycepin was isolated from culture broth Emericella sp., exhibiting moderate cytotoxic activity and inhibitory activity of exosome production. Thus, cordycepin is a potential compound to be investigated further for its exosome production inhibition activity for further use as an anticancer lead compound.

Fulvic Acid Improves Salinity Tolerance of Rice Seedlings: Evidence from Phenotypic Performance, Relevant Phenolic Acids, and Momilactones

Salinity is a severe stress that causes serious losses in rice production worldwide. This study, for the first time, investigated the effects of fulvic acid (FA) with various concentrations of 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mL/L on the ability of three rice varieties, Koshihikari, Nipponbare, and Akitakomachi, to cope with a 10 dS/m salinity level. The results show that the T3 treatment (0.25 mL/L FA) is the most effective in stimulating the salinity tolerance of all three varieties by enhancing their growth performance. T3 also promotes phenolic accumulation in all three varieties. In particular, salicylic acid, a well-known salt-stress-resistant substance, is found to increase during salinity stress in Nipponbare and Akitakomachi treated with T3 by 88% and 60%, respectively, compared to crops receiving salinity treatment alone. Noticeably, the levels of momilactones A (MA) and B (MB) fall in salt-affected rice. However, their levels markedly rise in rice treated with T3 (by 50.49% and 32.20%, respectively, in Nipponbare, and by 67.76% and 47.27%, respectively, in Akitakomachi), compared to crops receiving salinity treatment alone. This implies that momilactone levels are proportional to rice tolerance against salinity. Our findings suggest that FA (0.25 mL/L) can effectively improve the salinity tolerance of rice seedlings even in the presence of a strong salt stress of 10 dS/m. Further studies on FA application in salt-affected rice fields should be conducted to confirm its practical implications.

Engineering Komagataella phaffii to biosynthesize cordycepin from methanol which drives global metabolic alterations at the transcription level

Cordycepin has the potential to be an alternative to the disputed herbicide glyphosate. However, current laborious and time-consuming production strategies at low yields based on Cordyceps militaris lead to extremely high cost and restrict its application in the field of agriculture. In this study, Komagataella phaffii (syn. Pichia pastoris) was engineered to biosynthesize cordycepin from methanol, which could be converted from CO2. Combined with fermentation optimization, cordycepin content in broth reached as high as 2.68 ± 0.04 g/L within 168 h, around 15.95 mg/(L·h) in productivity. Additionally, a deaminated product of cordycepin was identified at neutral or weakly alkaline starting pH during fermentation. Transcriptome analysis found the yeast producing cordycepin was experiencing severe inhibition in methanol assimilation and peroxisome biogenesis, responsible for delayed growth and decreased carbon flux to pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) which led to lack of precursor supply. Amino acid interconversion and disruption in RNA metabolism were also due to accumulation of cordycepin. The study provided a unique platform for the manufacture of cordycepin based on the emerging non-conventional yeast and gave practical strategies for further optimization of the microbial cell factory.

Modern Approaches for the Development of New Herbicides Based on Natural Compounds

Weeds are a permanent component of anthropogenic ecosystems. They require strict control to avoid the accumulation of their long-lasting seeds in the soil. With high crop infestation, many elements of crop production technologies (fertilization, productive varieties, growth stimulators, etc.) turn out to be practically meaningless due to high yield losses. Intensive use of chemical herbicides (CHs) has led to undesirable consequences: contamination of soil and wastewater, accumulation of their residues in the crop, and the emergence of CH-resistant populations of weeds. In this regard, the development of environmentally friendly CHs with new mechanisms of action is relevant. The natural phytotoxins of plant or microbial origin may be explored directly in herbicidal formulations (biorational CHs) or indirectly as scaffolds for nature-derived CHs. This review considers (1) the main current trends in the development of CHs that may be important for the enhancement of biorational herbicides; (2) the advances in the development and practical application of natural compounds for weed control; (3) the use of phytotoxins as prototypes of synthetic herbicides. Some modern approaches, such as computational methods of virtual screening and design of herbicidal molecules, development of modern formulations, and determination of molecular targets, are stressed as crucial to make the exploration of natural compounds more effective.

Treatment of Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Current pharmacotherapy options of drug-induced liver injury (DILI) remain under discussion and are now evaluated in this analysis. Needless to say, the use of the offending drug must be stopped as soon as DILI is suspected. Normal dosed drugs may cause idiosyncratic DILI, and drugs taken in overdose commonly lead to intrinsic DILI. Empirically used but not substantiated regarding efficiency by randomized controlled trials (RCTs) is the intravenous antidote treatment with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in patients with intrinsic DILI by N-acetyl-p-aminophenol (APAP) overdose. Good data recommending pharmacotherapy in idiosyncratic DILI caused by hundreds of different drugs are lacking. Indeed, a recent analysis revealed that just eight RCTs have been published, and in only two out of eight trials were DILI cases evaluated for causality by the worldwide used Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method (RUCAM), representing overall a significant methodology flaw, as results of DILI RCTs lacking RUCAM are misleading since many DILI cases are known to be attributable erroneously to nondrug alternative causes. In line with these major shortcomings and mostly based on anecdotal reports, glucocorticoids (GCs) and other immuno-suppressants may be given empirically in carefully selected patients with idiosyncratic DILI exhibiting autoimmune features or caused by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), while some patients with cholestatic DILI may benefit from ursodeoxycholic acid use; in other patients with drug-induced hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (HSOS) and coagulopathy risks, the indication for anticoagulants should be considered. In view of many other mechanistic factors such as the hepatic microsomal cytochrome P450 with a generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), ferroptosis with toxicity of intracellular iron, and modification of the gut microbiome, additional therapy options may be available in the future. In summation, stopping the offending drug is still the first line of therapy for most instances of acute DILI, while various therapies are applied empirically and not based on good data from RCTs awaiting further trials using the updated RUCAM that asks for strict exclusion and inclusion details like liver injury criteria and provides valid causality rankings of probable and highly probable grades.

Efficacy of Green Extracting Solvents on Antioxidant, Xanthine Oxidase, and Plant Inhibitory Potentials of Solid-Based Residues (SBRs) of Cordyceps militaris

Solid-based residues (SBRs) of Cordyceps militaris are often considered as waste after the cultivation of the fruiting body. To demonstrate the value of this by-product, different ratios of two favorable green solvents (EtOH and water) were employed to optimize the yields of cordycepin (Cor) and adenosine (Ado) and investigate relevant activities of plant growth inhibition (allelopathy), antioxidants, and xanthine oxidase. The SBR extracts of 60% EtOH-40% water (W4) and 40% EtOH-60% water (W6) exhibited the highest antioxidant activity as well as yielded the optimum content of Cor and Ado. The W4 and Wt (hot water) exhibited maximum inhibitory effects on the growth of Raphanus sativus (radish), Lactuca sativa (lettuce) and two noxious weeds, Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass) and Bidens pilosa (beggarticks). Furthermore, GC-MS scan analysis revealed the presence of 14 major compounds in the SBRs. W4 is the best solvent to optimize yields of Cor and Ado, as well as having the strongest levels of antioxidant activity, xanthine oxidase, and growth-inhibitory activity. This study reveals that SBRs are a potential source of medicinal and agricultural utilization.

Simple Isolation of Cordycepin from Cordyceps militaris by Dual-Normal Phase Column Chromatography and Its Potential for Making Kombucha Functional Products

Cordycepin (3′-deoxyadenosine) is a potent bioactive metabolite of the medicinal fungus Cordyceps militaris, which has been increasingly exploited to treat various chronic diseases in humans. However, the current synthesis and purification procedures of cordycepin are principally laborious and complicated. This study provides a simple protocol approach to isolate and purify cordycepin from C. militaris by normal phase column chromatography at room temperature. Besides, this is the first to investigate the potential of cordycepin and cordycepin-included extracts from C. militaris for making Kombucha functional products. By a repeated column chromatography, an amount of 1.16 g of cordycepin is isolated from 2.8 kg of fruiting bodies of C. militaris, which obtained an efficiency of 83.26% compared to that estimated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The purity of cordycepin is confirmed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC), HPLC, and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR). In addition, kombucha-fermented extracts from cordycepin and cordycepin-included fractions show potential biological activities in terms of antioxidant, anti-diabetes via α-glucosidase inhibitory assay, and cytotoxicity via MTT assay on Meg-01 and HL-60 cell lines. Further studies on optimization of extraction protocol and verification of health benefits of kombucha products from cordycepin should be conducted prior to the official mass production.

Cordycepin Attenuates Testosterone-Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Rats via Modulation of AMPK and AKT Activation

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a disease that commonly affects elderly men. Cordycepin is an adenosine analog with a wide range of pharmacological activities including antiproliferative and prostatic smooth muscle relaxant effects. This study was designed to assess the actions of cordycepin in testosterone-induced BPH in rats. Animals were divided into six treatment groups: control, cordycepin-alone (10 mg/kg), testosterone-alone (3 mg/kg), cordycepin (5 mg/kg) + testosterone, cordycepin (10 mg/kg) + testosterone, and finasteride (0.5 mg/kg) + testosterone. Treatments were continued daily, 5 days a week, for 4 weeks. Cordycepin significantly prevented the increase in prostate weight and prostate index induced by testosterone. This was confirmed by histopathological examinations. Cordycepin antiproliferative activity was further defined by its ability to inhibit cyclin-D1 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression. In addition, cordycepin exhibited significant antioxidant properties as proven by the prevention of lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione diminution, and superoxide dismutase exhaustion. This was paralleled by anti-inflammatory activity as shown by the inhibition of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and nuclear factor-κB expression in prostatic tissues. It also enhanced apoptosis as demonstrated by its ability to enhance and inhibit mRNA expression of Bax and Bcl2, respectively. Western blot analysis indicated that cordycepin augmented phospho-AMP-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK) and inhibited p-AKT expression. Collectively, cordycepin has the ability to prevent testosterone-induced BPH in rats. This is mediated, at least partially, by its antiproliferative, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and pro-apoptotic actions in addition to its modulation of AMPK and AKT activation.

Research Progress on Cordycepin Synthesis and Methods for Enhancement of Cordycepin Production in Cordyceps militaris

C. militaris is an insect-born fungus that belongs to Ascomycota and Cordyceps. It has a variety of biological activities that can be applied in medicine, health-care products, cosmeceuticals and other fields. Cordycepin (COR) is one of the major bioactive components identified from C. militaris. Thus, C. militaris and COR have attracted extensive attention. In this study, chemical synthetic methods and the biosynthesis pathway of COR were reviewed. As commercially COR was mainly isolated from C. militaris fermentation, the optimizations for liquid and solid fermentation and genetic modifications of C. militaris to increase COR content were also summarized. Moreover, the research progress of genetic modifications of C. militaris and methods for separation and purification COR were introduced. Finally, the existing problems and future research direction of C. militaris were discussed. This study provides a reference for the production of COR in the future.

Metabolic Toxification of 1,2-Unsaturated Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids Causes Human Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction Syndrome: The Update

Saturated and unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are present in more than 6000 plant species growing in countries all over the world. They have a typical heterocyclic structure in common, but differ in their potential toxicity, depending on the presence or absence of a double bond between C1 and C2. Fortunately, most plants contain saturated PAs without this double bond and are therefore not toxic for consumption by humans or animals. In a minority of plants, however, PAs with this double bond between C1 and C2 exhibit strong hepatotoxic, genotoxic, cytotoxic, neurotoxic, and tumorigenic potentials. If consumed in error and in large emouns, plants with 1,2-unsaturated PAs induce metabolic breaking-off of the double bonds of the unsaturated PAs, generating PA radicals that may trigger severe liver injury through a process involving microsomal P450 (CYP), with preference of its isoforms CYP 2A6, CYP 3A4, and CYP 3A5. This toxifying CYP-dependent conversion occurs primarily in the endoplasmic reticulum of the hepatocytes equivalent to the microsomal fraction. Toxified PAs injure the protein membranes of hepatocytes, and after passing their plasma membranes, more so the liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), leading to life-threatening hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (HSOS). This injury is easily diagnosed by blood pyrrolizidine protein adducts, which are perfect diagnostic biomarkers, supporting causality evaluation using the updated RUCAM (Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method). HSOS is clinically characterized by weight gain due to fluid accumulation (ascites, pleural effusion, and edema), and may lead to acute liver failure, liver transplantation, or death. In conclusion, plant-derived PAs with a double bond between C1 and C2 are potentially hepatotoxic after metabolic removal of the double bond, and may cause PA-HSOS with a potential lethal outcome, even if PA consumption is stopped.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry based quantitative analysis of cordycepin from Cordyceps militaris

Cordycepin, which has great immunomodulatory activities such as anticancer, antifungal, antivirus, antileukemia and lipid-lowering ones, is the secondary metabolite of Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris). Liquid submerged fermentation is the common cultivation process to produce cordycepin. To optimize the fermentation process and improve production, monitoring the cordycepin secretion in the fermentation is essential. The measurement based on chromatography-mass spectrometry methods is generally involved in the complex sample pretreatments and time-consuming separation, so more rapid and convenient methods are required. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) is more attractive for faster and direct detection. Therefore, MALDI-MS detection combined with isotope-labeled internal standard was applied to the measurement of cordycepin content in the fermentation broth and mycelium. This method made accurate quantification of cordycepin in the range of 5–400 μg/mL with a relative standard deviation of 5.6%. The recovery rates of fermentation samples after the 1, 13, and 25 days were 90.15%, 94.27%, and 95.06%, respectively. The contents of cordycepin in the mycelium and fermentation broth were 136 mg/g and 148.39 mg/mL on the 20th culture day, respectively. The cordycepin secretion curve of the liquid fermentation of C. militaris was real-time traced over 25 days.

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A rapid quantification method of cordycepin based on MALDI-MS is proposed.

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The quantification relies on the stable isotope standard method.

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Rapid determination of the cordycepin content in the liquid fermentation broth of Cordyceps militaris without pre-treatment.

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Monitoring the fermentation state of C. militaris fermentation broth is benefit to improve the yield of cordycepin.

The Chemical Ecology Approach to Reveal Fungal Metabolites for Arthropod Pest Management

Biorational insecticides (for instance, avermectins, spinosins, azadirachtin, and afidopyropen) of natural origin are increasingly being used in agriculture. The review considers the chemical ecology approach for the search for new compounds with insecticidal properties (entomotoxic, antifeedant, and hormonal) produced by fungi of various ecological groups (entomopathogens, soil saprotrophs, endophytes, phytopathogens, and mushrooms). The literature survey revealed that insecticidal metabolites of entomopathogenic fungi have not been sufficiently studied, and most of the well-characterized compounds show moderate insecticidal activity. The greatest number of substances with insecticidal properties was found to be produced by soil fungi, mainly from the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. Metabolites with insecticidal and antifeedant properties were also found in endophytic and phytopathogenic fungi. It was noted that insect pests of stored products are mostly low sensitive to mycotoxins. Mushrooms were found to be promising producers of antifeedant compounds as well as insecticidal proteins. The expansion of the number of substances with insecticidal properties detected in prospective fungal species is possible by mining fungal genomes for secondary metabolite gene clusters and secreted proteins with their subsequent activation by various methods. The efficacy of these studies can be increased with high-throughput techniques of extraction of fungal metabolites and their analysis by various methods of chromatography and mass spectrometry.

A light life together: photosensing in the plant microbiota

Bacteria and fungi of the plant microbiota can be phytopathogens, parasites or symbionts that establish mutually advantageous relationships with plants. They are often rich in photoreceptors for UVA-Visible light, and in many cases, they exhibit light regulation of growth patterns, infectivity or virulence, reproductive traits, and production of pigments and of metabolites. In addition to the light-driven effects, often demonstrated via the generation of photoreceptor gene knock-outs, microbial photoreceptors can exert effects also in the dark. Interestingly, some fungi switch their attitude towards plants in dependence of illumination or dark conditions in as much as they may be symbiotic or pathogenic. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the roles of light and photoreceptors in plant-associated bacteria and fungi aiming at the identification of common traits and general working ideas. Still, reports on light-driven infection of plants are often restricted to the description of macroscopically observable phenomena, whereas detailed information on the molecular level, e.g., protein-protein interaction during signal transduction or induction mechanisms of infectivity/virulence initiation remains sparse. As it becomes apparent from still only few molecular studies, photoreceptors, often from the red- and the blue light sensitive groups interact and mutually modulate their individual effects. The topic is of great relevance, even in economic terms, referring to plant-pathogen or plant-symbionts interactions, considering the increasing usage of artificial illumination in greenhouses, the possible light-regulation of the synthesis of plant-growth stimulating substances or herbicides by certain symbionts, and the biocontrol of pests by selected fungi and bacteria in a sustainable agriculture.

Enhanced production of cordycepin in Ophiocordyceps sinensis using growth supplements under submerged conditions

Cordycepin is a crucial bioactive compound produced by the fungus Cordyceps spp. Its therapeutic potential has been recognized for a wide range of biological properties such as anticancer, anti-diabetic, antidepressant, antioxidant, immunomodulation, etc. Moreover, its human random clinical trials depicted a promising anti-inflammatory activity that reduced the airway inflammation remarkably in asthmatic patients. But its overexploitation and low production of cordycepin in naturally growing biomass are insufficient to meet its existing market demand for its therapeutic use. Therefore, strategies for enhancement of cordycepin production in Cordyceps spp. are warranted. However, specifically, wild type Ophiocordyceps sinensis possesses a very low content of cordycepin and has restricted growth in natural mycelial biomass. To overcome these limitations, this study attempted to enhance cordycepin production in its mycelial biomass in vitro under submerged conditions by adding various growth supplements. The effect of these growth supplements was evaluated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) which demonstrated that among nucleosides- hypoxanthine and adenosine; amino acids-glycine and glutamine; plant hormones- 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and 3-indoleacetic acid (IAA); vitamin-thiamine (B1) from each group of growth supplements yielded a higher amount of cordycepin with 466.48 ± 3.88, 380.23 ± 1.78, 434.97 ± 2.32, 269.78 ± 2.92, 227.61 ± 2.34, 226.02 ± 1.69 and 185.26 ± 2.35 mg/L respectively as compared to control with 13.66 ± 0.64 mg/L. Further, at the transcriptional level, quantitative real time-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis of genes associated with metabolism and cordycepin biosynthesis depicted significant upregulation of major downstream genes- NT5E, RNR, purA, and ADEK which corroborated well with RP-HPLC analysis. Taken together, the present study identified growth supplements as potential precursors to activate the cordycepin biosynthesis pathway leading to improved cordycepin production in O. sinensis.

Enhancement of Chemical Stability and Dermal Delivery of Cordyceps militaris Extracts by Nanoemulsion

This study aimed to develop nanoemulsions for enhancing chemical stability and dermal delivery of Cordyceps militaris extracts. C. militaris was extracted by maceration and infusion. The extracts were investigated for cordycepin, phenolic, and flavonoid content. The antioxidant activity was investigated by in vitro spectrophotometric methods. The irritation profile was investigated by hen's egg-chorioallantoic membrane test. Nanoemulsions were developed using high-pressure homogenizer. C. militaris extract was incorporated into the nanoemulsion and investigated for safety, release profile, permeation, and skin retention. The results demonstrated that water extract (CW) contained the significantly highest content of cordycepin, phenolics, and flavonoids, which were responsible for antioxidant activity. CW was the most potent antioxidant. CW possessed comparable 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity and lipid peroxidation inhibition to l-ascorbic acid (96.9 ± 3.1%) and alpha-tocopherol (87.2 ± 1.0%). Consequently, ten mg/mL of CW was incorporated into nanoemulsions composing of sugar squalene, Tween® 85, and deionized water. Nanoemulsion, which had the smallest internal droplet size (157.1 ± 2.6 nm), enhanced the stability of CW, had no cytotoxicity effect and no skin irritation, released the most CW (0.9 ± 0.0% w/w after 24 h), and delivered the highest CW into the skin layer (33.5 ± 0.7% w/w). Therefore, nanoemulsion was suggested for enhancing the stability and dermal delivery of CW.

Transcriptome and proteome analyses reveal the regulatory networks and metabolite biosynthesis pathways during the development of Tolypocladium guangdongense

Tolypocladium guangdongense has a similar metabolite profile to Ophiocordyceps sinensis, a highly regarded fungus used for traditional Chinese medicine with high nutritional and medicinal value. Although the genome sequence of T. guangdongense has been reported, relatively little is known about the regulatory networks for fruiting body development and about the metabolite biosynthesis pathways. In order to address this, an analysis of transcriptome and proteome at differential developmental stages of T. guangdongense was performed. In total, 9076 genes were found to be expressed and 2040 proteins were identified. There were a large number of genes that were significantly differentially expressed between the mycelial stage and the stages. Interestingly, the correlation between the transcriptomic and proteomic data was low, suggesting the importance of the post-transcriptional processes in the growth and development of T. guangdongense. Among the genes/proteins that were both differentially expressed during the developmental process, there were numerous heat shock proteins and transcription factors. In addition, there were numerous proteins involved in terpenoid, ergosterol, adenosine and polysaccharide biosynthesis that also showed significant downregulation in their expression levels during the developmental process. Furthermore, both tryptophan and tryptamine were present at higher levels in the primordium stage. However, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) levels continuously decreased as development proceeded, and the enzymes involved in IAA biosynthesis were also clearly differentially downregulated. These data could be meaningful in studying the molecular mechanisms of fungal development, and for the industrial and medicinal application of macro-fungi.

Synthesis of cordycepin: Current scenario and future perspectives

Cordyceps genus, such as C. militaris and C. kyushuensis, is a source of a rare traditional Chinese medicine that has been used for the treatment of numerous chronic and malignant diseases. Cordycepin, 3'-deoxyadenosine, is a major active compound found in most Cordyceps. Cordycepin exhibits a variety of biological activities, including anti-tumor, immunomodulation, antioxidant, and anti-aging, among others, which could be applied in health products, medicine, cosmeceutical etc. fields. This review focuses on the synthesis methods for cordycepin. The current methods for cordycepin synthesis involve chemical synthesis, microbial fermentation, in vitro synthesis and biosynthesis; however, some defects are unavoidable and the production is still far from the demand of cordycepin. For the future study of cordycepin synthesis, based on the illumination of cordycepin biosynthesis pathway, genetical engineering of the Cordyceps strain or introducing microbes by virtue of synthetic biology will be the great potential strategies for cordycepin synthesis. This review will aid the future synthesis of the valuable cordycepin.

Nidulantes of Aspergillus (Formerly Emericella): A Treasure Trove of Chemical Diversity and Biological Activities

The genus Emericella (Ascomycota) includes more than thirty species with worldwide distribution across many ecosystems. It is considered a rich source of diverse metabolites. The published classes of natural compounds that are discussed here are organized according to the following biosynthetic pathways: polyketides (azaphilones, cyclopentenone pigments, dicyanides, furan derivatives, phenolic ethers, and xanthones and anthraquinones); shikimate derivatives (bicoumarins); mevalonate derivatives (meroterpenes, sesquiterpenes, sesterterpenes and steroids) and amino acids derivatives (alkaloids (indole-derivatives, isoindolones, and piperazine) and peptides (depsipeptides)). These metabolites produce the wide array of biological effects associated with Emericella, including antioxidant, antiproliferative, antimalarial, antiviral, antibacterial, antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antifungal and kinase inhibitors. Careful and extensive study of the diversity and distribution of metabolites produced by the genus Emericella (either marine or terrestrial) revealed that, no matter the source of the fungus, the composition of the culture medium effectively controls the metabolites produced. The topic of this review is the diversity of metabolites that have been identified from Emericella, along with the contextual information on either their biological or geographic sources. This review presents 236 natural compounds, which were reported from marine and terrestrial Emericella. Amongst the reported compounds, only 70.2% were biologically assayed for their effects, including antimicrobial or cytotoxicity. This implies the need for substantial investigation of alternative activities. This review includes a full discussion of compound structures and disease management, based on materials published from 1982 through December 2019.