Characterization of Phenolic Compounds and Antiproliferative Effects of Salvia pomifera and Salvia fruticosa Extracts

Carnosic acid: an effective phenolic diterpenoid for prevention and management of cancers via targeting multiple signaling pathways

Cancer is a serious global public health issue, and a great deal of research has been made to treat cancer. Of these, discovery of promising compounds that effectively fight cancer always has been the main point of interest in pharmaceutical research. Carnosic acid (CA) is a phenolic diterpenoid compound widely present in Lamiaceae plants such as Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.). In recent years, there has been increasing evidence that CA has significant anti-cancer activity, such as leukaemia, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, liver cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, lymphoma, prostate cancer, oral cancer, etc. The potential mechanisms involved by CA, including inhibiting cell proliferation, inhibiting metastasis, inducing cell apoptosis, stimulating autophagy, regulating the immune system, reducing inflammation, regulating the gut microbiota, and enhancing the effects of other anti-cancer drugs. This article reviews the biosynthesis, pharmacokinetics and metabolism, safety and toxicity, as well as the molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways of the anticancer activity of CA. This will contribute to the development of CA or CA-containing functional foods for the prevention and treatment of cancer, providing important advances in the advancement of cancer treatment strategies.

Phytochemical screening and biological evaluation of Greek sage (Salvia fruticosa Mill.) extracts

This study explores the influence of extraction solvents on the composition and bioactivity of Salvia fruticosa extracts. Ultrasound-assisted extraction with water, ethanol and their mixtures in variable proportions was used to produce four different extracts. An untargeted UPLC/MS‑based metabolomics was performed to discover metabolites profile variation between the extracts. In the analyzed samples, 2704 features had been detected, of which 95 were tentatively identified. The concentrations of the important metabolites, namely, caffeic acid, carnosic acid, carnosol, rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid B and scutellarin, were determined, using UPLC-PDA methods. Rosmarinic acid was the dominant metabolite and antioxidant in all tested extracts, except the aqueous extract, in which scutellarin was the most abundant compound. The extracts and standards were examined for antioxidant activity and xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitory activity. The most diverse in terms of chemical composition and rich in antioxidant compounds was 70% ethanolic extract and the strongest antioxidant was caffeic acid. All analyzed extracts showed the ability to inhibit XO activity, but the highest value was recorded for 30% ethanolic extract. Among tested standards, the most potent XO inhibitor was caffeic acid. The results suggest that the leaves of Greek sage are a source of natural XO inhibitors and may be an alternative to drugs produced by chemical synthesis.

Chemical Profiling and Antioxidant and Anti-Amyloid Capacities of Salvia fruticosa Extracts from Greece

An increasingly common ailment in elderly persons is Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative illness. Present treatment is restricted to alleviating symptoms; hence, there is a requirement to develop an effective approach to AD treatment. Salvia fruticosa (SF) is a medicinal plant with a documented neuroprotective potential. To identify extracts of increased neuroprotectivity, we partitioned the methanolic extract of SF aerial parts from Greece into several fractions, by employing solvents of different polarities. The fractions were chemically identified and evaluated for their antioxidancy and anti-neurotoxic potential against amyloid beta peptides 25-35 (Aβ25-35). Carnosol and carnosic acid were among the prominent compounds, while all partitions showed significant antioxidant capacity, with the diethyl ether and ethyl acetate partitions being the most potent. These, along with the aqueous and the butanolic fractions, demonstrated statistically significant anti-neurotoxic potential. Thus, our findings further validate the neuroprotective potential of SF and support its ethnopharmacological usage as an antioxidant. The particular properties found define SF as a promising source for obtaining extracts or bioactive compounds, possibly beneficial for generating AD-related functional foods or medications. Finally, our results encourage plant extract partitioning for acquiring fractions of enhanced biological properties.

Chemical Profile and Bioactivity Evaluation of Salvia Species from Eastern Europe

The Salvia genus comprises about 1000 species endowed with medicinal, aromatic, cosmetic, and ornamental applications. Even though the genus is one of the most-studied taxa of the Lamiaceae family, data on the chemical composition and biological properties of certain locally used Salvia species are still scarce. The present work aimed to evaluate the phytochemical profile and antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic potential of ten Salvia species that grow in Eastern Europe (e.g., the Republic of Moldova). LC-HRMS/MS metabolite profiling allowed for the annotation of 15 phenolic and organic acids, 18 flavonoids, 19 diterpenes, 5 sesterpenes, and 2 triterpenes. Multivariate analysis (e.g., principal component analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis) revealed that S. austriaca, S. nutans, and S. officinalis formed individual clusters, whereas the remaining species had a similar composition. S. officinalis showed the highest activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae (MIC = 0.625 mg/mL). As evaluated in DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays, S. officinalis was one of the most potent radical scavenging and metal-reducing agents (CE50 values of 25.33, 8.13, and 21.01 μg/mL, respectively), followed by S. verticillata, S. sclarea, S. kopetdaghensis, S. aethiopis, and S. tesquicola. Pearson correlation analysis revealed strong correlations with rosmarinic acid, luteolin-O-glucuronide, and hydroxybenzoic acid. When the cytotoxic activity was evaluated in human breast carcinoma MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells, no significant reduction in cell viability was observed over the concentrations ranging from 25 and 100 μg/mL. The results confirm the potential use of understudied Salvia species as promising sources of antioxidant compounds for developing novel pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, or cosmeceutical products.

Chemical Composition and In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Salvia aratocensis (Lamiaceae) Essential Oils and Extracts

Salvia aratocensis (Lamiaceae) is an endemic shrub from the Chicamocha River Canyon in Santander (Colombia). Its essential oil (EO) was distilled from the aerial parts of the plant via steam distillation and microwave-assisted hydrodistillation and analyzed using GC/MS and GC/FID. Hydroethanolic extracts were isolated from dry plants before distillation and from the residual plant material after distillation. The extracts were characterized via UHPLC-ESI^(+/-)-Orbitrap-HRMS. The S. aratocensis essential oil was rich in oxygenated sesquiterpenes (60-69%) and presented τ-cadinol (44-48%) and 1,10-di-epi-cubenol (21-24%) as its major components. The in vitro antioxidant activity of the EOs, measured via an ABTS^+• assay, was 32-49 μmol Trolox^® g^-1 and that measured using the ORAC assay was 1520-1610 μmol Trolox^® g^-1. Ursolic acid (28.9-39.8 mg g^-1) and luteolin-7-O-glucuronide (1.16-25.3 mg g^-1) were the major S. aratocensis extract constituents. The antioxidant activity of the S. aratocensis extract, obtained from undistilled plant material, was higher (82 ± 4 μmol Trolox^® g^-1, ABTS^+•; 1300 ± 14 μmol Trolox^® g^-1, ORAC) than that of the extracts obtained from the residual plant material (51-73 μmol Trolox^® g^-1, ABTS^+•; 752-1205 μmol Trolox^® g^-1, ORAC). S. aratocensis EO and extract had higher ORAC antioxidant capacity than the reference substances butyl hydroxy toluene (98 μmol Trolox^® g^-1) and α-tocopherol (450 μmol Trolox^® g^-1). S. aratocensis EOs and extracts have the potential to be used as natural antioxidants for cosmetics and pharmaceutical products.

Nine-dimensional bioprofiles of Tunisian sages (Salvia officinalis, S. aegyptiaca and S. verbenaca) by high-performance thin-layer chromatography - effect-directed analyses

Ethyl acetate extracts of Tunisian Salvia aegyptiaca and S. verbenaca aerial parts and S. officinalis leaves were examined via bioanalytical profiling using high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) combined with nine bioactivity assays, namely antibacterial (Aliivibrio fischeri, Bacillus subtilis, and Rhodococcus fascians), antifungal (Bipolaris sorokiniana, and Fusarium avenaceum), radical scavenging (DPPH•), and enzyme inhibitory (α-glucosidase, acetylcholinesterase, and lipase) ones. The screening, using toluene - ethyl acetate - methanol 6:3:0.5 (V/V/V) as a mobile phase, revealed five bioactive zones (a-e) that were analyzed by HPTLC-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Zones b and c, observed exclusively in S. officinalis, were active in all assays except α-glucosidase, and only c inhibited F. avenaceum. Compounds in these zones were identified by HPLC-high resolution tandem MS (LC-HRMS/MS) as rosmanol/epi-rosmanol and methyl carnosate, respectively. In the bioactive zones a and e, corosolic/maslinic acid and ursolic/oleanolic acid isomer pairs were present, which could be identified in all three Salvia species after their HPTLC separation using pre-chromatographic derivatization with iodine and MS detection. The triterpenes inhibited B. subtilis and R. fascians bacteria and α-glucosidase enzyme. Linoleic and linolenic acids were detected in zone d, which showed strong lipase inhibition in all three sage species.

GC-MS and LC-DAD-MS Phytochemical Profiling for Characterization of Three Native Salvia Taxa from Eastern Mediterranean with Antiglycation Properties

Salvia fruticosa and S. pomifera subsp. calycina are native to Eastern Mediterranean and S. pomifera subsp. pomifera is endemic to Greece. The primary aim of this study was to develop an analytical methodology for metabolomic profiling and to study their efficacy in combating glycation, the major biochemical complication of diabetes. After sequential ultrasound-assisted extraction of 2 g of leaves with petroleum ether and 70% methanol, the volatile metabolites in the petroleum ether extracts were studied with GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry), whereas the polar metabolites in the hydroalcoholic extracts were determined and quantified by UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS (Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Diode Array Detector-Mass Spectrometry). This methodology was applied to five populations belonging to the three native taxa. 1,8-Cineole was the predominant volatile (34.8-39.0%) in S. fruticosa, while S. pomifera had a greater content of α-thujone (19.7-41.0%) and β-thujone (6.0-39.1%). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) analysis of the volatiles could discriminate the different taxa. UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS demonstrated the presence of 50 compounds, twenty of which were quantified. PCA revealed that not only the taxa but also the populations of S. pomifera subsp. pomifera could be differentiated. All Salvia samples inhibited advanced glycation end-product formation in a bovine serum albumin/2-deoxyribose assay; rosmarinic and carnosic acid shared this activity. This study demonstrates the antiglycation activity of S. fruticosa and S. pomifera extracts for the first time and presents a miniaturized methodology for their metabolomic profiling, which could aid chemotaxonomic studies and serve as a tool for their authentication and quality control.

In vitro and in silico β-lactamase inhibitory properties and phytochemical profile of Ocimum basilicum cultivated in central delta of Egypt

CONTEXT

Some studies reported the chemical content and antimicrobial properties of Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae), relevant to the ecological variations in some areas of Egypt and other countries, yet no research was conducted on the plant cultivated in the central delta region of Egypt. Also, no previous data reported on inhibition of β-lactamases by O. basilicum.

OBJECTIVE

To assess β-lactamases inhibition by O. basilicum extracts and the individual constituents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dried aerial parts of O. basilicum were extracted by hydrodistillation for preparation of essential oil and by methanol for non-volatile constituents. Essential oil content and the methanol extract were analysed by GC-MS and UPLC-PDA-MS/MS, respectively. Methyl cinnamate was isolated and analysed by NMR. Broth microdilution method was used to investigate the antimicrobial against resistant clinical isolates of Escherichia coli identified by double disc synergy, combination disc tests and PCR. The most active oil content was further tested with a nitrocefin kit for β-lactamase inhibition and investigated by docking.

RESULTS

O. basilicum was found to contain methyl cinnamate as the major content of the essential oil. More interestingly, methyl cinnamate inhibited ESBL β-lactamases of the type CTX-M. The in vitro IC₅₀ using nitrocefin kit was 11.6 µg/mL vs. 8.1 µg/mL for clavulanic acid as a standard β-lactamase inhibitor.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to report the inhibitory activity of O. basilicum oil and methyl cinnamate against β-lactamase-producing bacteria. The results indicate that methyl cinnamate could be a potential alternative for β-lactamase inhibition.

Evaluating the Potential Anticancer Properties of Salvia triloba in Human-Osteosarcoma U2OS Cell Line and Ovarian Adenocarcinoma SKOV3 Cell Line

Salvia triloba (S. triloba) is an herb inherently linked to traditional medicine systems in the Eastern Mediterranean region. There is minimal experimental evidence however, regarding the anticancer effects of S. triloba in both osteosarcoma and ovarian cancer. In this study, we investigated the effects of crude (macerated) S. triloba ethanol and acetone leaf extracts on viability, migratory ability, and the expression of genes regulating these activities in U2OS and SKOV3 cells using MTT assay, scratch-wound healing/trans-well migration assay, and RT-qPCR respectively. MTT assay results indicated that the acetone extract significantly reduced both U2OS and SKOV3 cell viability with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 54.51 ± 1.10 µg/mL and 75.96 ± 1.0237 µg/mL respectively; these concentrations further displayed negligible hemolytic activity. The combination of acetone extract (19 µg/mL) and paclitaxel (0.787 µg/mL) displayed synergy and reduced SKOV3 cell viability by over 90%. Additionally, the trans-well migration assay illustrated that the acetone extract (IC50) inhibited both U2OS and SKOV3 cell migration by more than 50%. Moreover, S. triloba acetone extract significantly downregulated the steady-state mRNA expression of key genes involved in driving select cancer hallmarks. Four fractions were generated from the acetone extract by thin layer chromatography (TLC), and the obtained retention factors (Rf) (ranging from 0.2 to 0.8) suggested a mixture of high and moderately polar compounds whose bioactivities require further investigation. In addition, FTIR measurements of the extract revealed peaks corresponding to OH, aliphatic CH, and ester groups suggesting the presence of phenolic compounds, terpenes, and polysaccharides. Altogether, these results suggest that S. triloba possesses potential therapeutic compounds that inhibit cell proliferation and migration, and modulate several genes involved in osteosarcoma and ovarian carcinoma progression.

Combination Therapy of Carnosic Acid and Methotrexate Effectively Suppressed the Inflammatory Markers and Oxidative Stress in Experimental Arthritis

Background: Combination therapy with methotrexate (MTX) is the most common therapeutic strategy used for the treatment of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this study, we combined the natural compound carnosic acid (CA) with MTX to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress in adjuvant arthritis (AA). Methods: AA was induced in 6–8 rats per group. MTX was administrated twice a week at a dose of 0.3 mg/kg b.w., while CA was administered daily at a dose of 100 mg/kg both in monotherapy and in combination with MTX. Plasma samples were collected on the 14th, 21st, and 28th day. Body weight and hind paw volume were measured once a week. Results: We found that, mainly, the CA + MTX combination significantly reduced the hind paw swelling, the levels of IL-17A, MMP-9, and MCP-1 in plasma, and GGT activity in joint homogenates. The mRNA expression of HO-1, catalase, and IL-1β in the liver were significantly improved by CA + MTX only. Our results indicate that adding CA to MTX treatment could be a good therapeutic option for patients suffering from RA. Conclusions: The addition of CA to methotrexate treatment significantly improved its efficacy in decreasing the development of AA by inhibiting the markers of inflammation and oxidative stress.

Potential Antioxidative Components in Azadirachta indica Revealed by Bio-Affinity Ultrafiltration with SOD and XOD

Azadirachta indica (A. indica) has been widely used due to its diverse pharmacological activities. However, there are currently few studies on its responsible antioxidant ingredients against superoxide dismutase (SOD) and xanthine oxidase (XOD). In this study, the antioxidant activities of A. indica were evaluated by a 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethyl-benzthiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid) and ferric-ion-reducing antioxidant power method. Meanwhile, total polyphenol and flavonoid content were determined to reveal that they were the highest in ethyl acetate (EA) fraction. Next, compounds with the most antioxidant activity were screened out from EA fraction by bio-affinity ultrafiltration liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (UF-LC-MS) with SOD and XOD. As a result, gallic acid, protocatechuic acid and (−)-epicatechin were identified as potential SOD ligands with relative binding affinity (RBA) values of 2.15, 1.78 and 1.61, respectively. Additionally, these three ligands could effectively interact with SOD in molecular docking with binding energies (BEs) ranging from −3.84 ± 0.37 to −5.04 ± 0.01 kcal/mol. In addition, carnosic acid exhibited a strong binding affinity to XOD with an RBA value of 2.05 and BE value of −8.24 ± 0.71 kcal/mol. In conclusion, these results indicated that A. indica might have good antioxidant activity and antigout potential, and the UF-LC-MS method is suitable and efficient for screening both SOD and XOD ligands from A. indica.

LC-MS Identification and Quantification of Phenolic Compounds in Solid Residues from the Essential Oil Industry

Plant solid residues obtained from the essential oil industry represent a rich source of phenolic compounds with bioactive properties to be used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. A selective and sensitive liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method was developed for the simultaneous determination of phenolic compounds in solid residues of the Lamiaceae family plants. A total of 48 compounds can be separated within 35 min by using the Poroshell-120 EC-C₁₈ column, and a gradient mobile phase of 0.1% formic acid and acetonitrile with flow rate of 0.5 mL/min; salicylic acid was used as internal standard. The calibration curves showed good linearity in the tested concentration range for each analyte (R² > 0.9921), while recoveries ranged from 70.1% to 115.0% with an intra-day and inter-day precision of less than 6.63% and 15.00%, respectively. Based on the retention behavior, as well as absorption and mass spectra, 17 phenolic acids, 19 flavonoids and 2 phenolic diterpenes were identified and quantified in the solid residues obtained by distillation of six aromatic plants: oregano, rosemary, sage, satureja, lemon balm, and spearmint. The method constitutes an accurate analytical and quality control tool for the simultaneous quantitation of phenolics present in solid waste residues from the essential oil industry.

Chemical and Biological Characterization of the Anticancer Potency of Salvia fruticosa in a Model of Human Malignant Melanoma

Malignant melanoma is one of the most aggressive types of skin cancer with an increasing incidence worldwide. Thus, the development of innovative therapeutic approaches is of great importance. Salvia fruticosa (SF) is known for its anticancer properties and in this context, we aimed to investigate its potential anti-melanoma activity in an in vitro model of human malignant melanoma. Cytotoxicity was assessed through a colorimetric-based sulforhodamine-B (SRB) assay in primary malignant melanoma (A375), non-malignant melanoma epidermoid carcinoma (A431) and non-tumorigenic melanocyte neighbouring keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells. Among eight (8) different fractions of S. fruticosa extracts (SF1-SF8) tested, SF3 was found to possess significant cytotoxic activity against A375 cells, while A431 and HaCaT cells remained relatively resistant or exerted no cytotoxicity, respectively. In addition, the total phenolic (Folin-Ciocalteu assay) and total flavonoid content of SF extracts was estimated, whereas the antioxidant capacity was measured via the inhibition of tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation levels. Finally, apoptotic cell death was assessed by utilizing a commercially available kit for the activation of caspases - 3, - 8 and - 9. In conclusion, the anti-melanoma properties of SF3 involve the induction of both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathway(s), as evidenced by the increased activity levels of caspases - 8, and - 9, respectively.

Exploration of genetic, morphological and essential oil variation reveals tools for the authentication and breeding of Salvia pomifera subsp. calycina (Sm.) Hayek

Salvia pomifera subsp. calycina (Sm.) Hayek (Lamiaceae), is an Eastern Mediterranean element, which is used in traditional medicine and cuisine in the same manner as S. fruticosa Mill. and S. officinalis L.. The essential oil (EO) and the extracts of S. pomifera possess bioactive compounds with anti-proliferative, anticholinesterase, antioxidant, antiviral and antifungal properties. In this study, the chemical (EO), genetic (DNA microsatellites, SSRs) and morphological diversity of forty-nine individuals of Salvia pomifera subsp. calycina, originating from five natural populations of the Peloponnese (Greece) were determined, in order to explore the potential for successful breeding and to reveal tools and biomarkers for identification and authentication. Chemical and genetic analyses revealed high levels of variation both within and among populations, while morphological analysis mainly within populations. Essential oil yield ranged from 1.79 to 5.79 ml 100 g^-1 dry wt, among individuals while β-thujone ranged from 6.04 to 64.75%. Consistency was found in the EO yield and composition of specific individuals, when sampled during the same period, for three consecutive years, while the analysis during spring and summer months showed differentiation that still retained individual's discrimination. Genetic analysis using SSRs showed that the observed population heterozygosity (H_o) ranged from 0.48 to 0.67, while high number of private alleles were revealed in all populations. Considerable genetic differentiation was observed among the three Salvia taxa (S. pomifera subsp. calycina, S. fruticosa, S. officinalis) (Fst values ranged from 0.27 to 0.48) and lower among S. pomifera subsp. calycina populations (Fst values ranged from 0.06 to 0.13). The great variation that was revealed in all measured traits, in combination with the demonstrated, genetically based, consistency of their EO yield and composition, advocates to a successful breeding, whereas SSR genotyping presents a strong identification and authentication tool.

Increased phenylpropanoids production in UV-B irradiated Salvia verticillata as a consequence of altered genes expression in young leaves

Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation as an environmental potential elicitor induces the synthesis of plant secondary metabolites. The effects of UV-B radiation on photosynthetic pigments and dry weight, biochemical and molecular features of old and young leaves of Salvia verticillata were investigated. Plants were exposed to 10.97 kJ m^-2 day^-1 of biologically effective UV-B radiation for up to 10 days. The sampling process was performed in four steps: 1, 5, 10, and 13 days (recovery time) after the start of irradiation. As a result of plant investment in primary and secondary metabolism, the production of phenolic compounds increased, while chlorophyll levels and leaf dry weight (%) declined. Under long-term UV-B exposure, young leaves exhibited the most significant reduction in chlorophyll a and b content and leaf dry weight. The highest level of total phenol (1.34-fold) and flavonoid concentration (2-fold) relative to the control was observed on the 5th day and recovery time, respectively. Young leaves demonstrated the highest amount of phenolic acids in recovery time. Young leaves on the 5th day of the experiment exerted the highest level of antioxidant activity when compared to the control. A positive correlation was observed between antioxidant activity and the amount of phenolic compounds. Regarding the expression of phenylpropanoid pathway genes, UV-B enhanced the expression of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, tyrosine aminotransferase, and rosmarinic acid synthase with the highest level in young leaves on the 10th day. Overall, young leaves of S. verticillata indicated higher sensitivity to UV-B radiation and developed more tangible reactions to such radiation.

Extraction Processes Affect the Composition and Bioavailability of Flavones from Lamiaceae Plants: A Comprehensive Review

Lamiaceae plants are a widespread family of herbaceous plants with around 245 plant genera and nearly 22,576 species distributed in the world. Some of the most representative and widely studied Lamiaceae plants belong to the Ocimum, Origanum, Salvia, and Thymus genera. These plants are a rich source of bioactive molecules such as terpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic acids. In this sense, there is a subgroup of flavonoids classified as flavones. Flavones have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-diabetic potential; thus, efficient extraction techniques from their original plant matrixes have been developed. Currently, conventional extraction methods involving organic solvents are no longer recommended due to their environmental consequences, and new environmentally friendly techniques have been developed. Moreover, once extracted, the bioactivity of flavones is highly linked to their bioavailability, which is often neglected. This review aims to comprehensively gather recent information (2011–2021) regarding extraction techniques and their important relationship with the bioavailability of flavones from Lamiaceae plants including Salvia, Ocimum, Thymus, and Origanum.

Exploring the phytochemical variation of non-volatile metabolites within three South African Salvia species using UPLC-MS fingerprinting and chemometric analysis

The South African Salvia species, Salvia africana-lutea, S. lanceolata and S. chamelaeagnea, are widely used to treat fever and inflammation associated with skin and lung infections. The aim of this study was to explore the non-volatile secondary metabolites and the phytochemical variation within these lesser known species, to support product development and commercialisation. Chemical profiles of the methanol extracts of 81 wild-harvested samples were obtained using ultra performance-quadrupole-Time-of-Flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC-qToF-MS). Forty-one compounds, including caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, carnosol, carnosic acid and ursolic acid, were detected and confirmed across the three species. Nineteen compounds were tentatively identified of which 14 have not been reported in these species. Principal component analysis revealed distinct clusters corresponding to the three species, confirming chemical differences. Marker compounds for each species were revealed using orthogonal projection to latent structures-discriminant analysis. Further chemometric analysis reflected a degree of intraspecies variation, although the chemistry within populations was mostly conserved. Potential chemotypes for each species were identified through unique compounds associated with each group. The concentrations of medicinally important metabolites, namely, rosmarinic acid, carnosol, carnosic acid and ursolic acid, were determined, using validated UPLC-PDA methods. Ursolic acid was present at levels up to 38.2 mg/g, confirming that these species are a rich source of this compound. No similar studies combining liquid chromatography with chemometric analysis, and utilising a large sample size from various habitats, have been reported for these three Salvia species. The results will guide selection of cultivars with the best attributes for the intended therapeutic application, thereby protecting wild populations from over-exploitation.

New Insights into the Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Italian Salvia officinalis Leaf and Flower Extracts in Lipopolysaccharide and Tumor-Mediated Inflammation Models

This work aimed to investigate and compare the in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Salvia officinalis L. (sage) from Italy, with the aim of raising its current knowledge in this field. Leaves and flowers (S1–S8), harvested in two areas of Southern Italy, were extracted with methanol as a solvent by maceration or ultrasound-assisted extraction. Sage extracts, analysed by high pressure liquid chromatography-diode-array detection-electrospray ionization-quadrupole-mass spectroscopy (HPLC-DAD-ESI-Q-MS), exerted a promising antioxidant activity investigated using ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), and β-carotene bleaching tests, and elicited a significant decrease in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. The anti-inflammatory activity was analysed in the same in vitro model. All the extracts did not affect cell viability although they showed anti-inflammatory activity, as they induced a decrease in nitrite levels that was greater than 50%, when employed at 50 µg/mL. Furthermore, they elicited a decrease in nitrite levels, as well as a decline in pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. The NF-κB transcription factor proved to be involved in the mechanisms that underlie such effects. Interestingly, sage extracts were able to interfere with the inflammatory activity induced by breast cancer cell-conditioned media (nitrite levels were significantly decreased, p < 0.05; p < 0.01), highlighting for the first time the important role of S. officinalis in controlling inflammation processes related to neoplastic progression.

In vitro biological activity of Salvia fruticosa Mill. infusion against amyloid β-peptide-induced toxicity and inhibition of GSK-3β, CK-1δ, and BACE-1 enzymes relevant to Alzheimer's disease

Salvia species have been traditionally used to improve cognition and have been proved to be a potential natural treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. Salvia fruticosa Mill. (Turkish sage or Greek sage) demonstrated to have anticholinergic effects in vitro.

The aim of this study was to understand the mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effects of S. fruticosa infusion and its representative compound rosmarinic acid, which was detected by LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS. The protective effects of the S. fruticosa infusion (SFINF) and its major substance rosmarinic acid (RA) on amyloid beta 1–42 -induced cytotoxicity on SH-SY5Y cells together with p-GSK-3β activation were investigated. Their in vitro inhibitory effects against glycogen synthase kinase 3β, β-secretase, and casein kinase 1δ enzymes were also evaluated.

The results showed that treatment with the all tested concentrations, SFINF significantly decreased Aβ 1–42-induced cytotoxicity and exhibited promising in vitro glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibitory activity below 10 µg/mL (IC₅₀ 6.52 ± 1.14 µg/mL), in addition to β-secretase inhibition (IC₅₀ 86 ± 2.9 µg/mL) and casein kinase 1δ inhibition (IC₅₀ 121.57 ± 4.00). The SFINF (100 µg/mL and 250 µg/mL) also activated the expression of p-GSK-3β in amyloid beta 1–42 treated SH-SY5Y cells.

The outcomes of this study demonstrated that the S. fruticosa infusion possessed activity to prevent amyloid beta 1–42 -induced neurotoxicity and provided proof that its mechanism may involve regulation of p-GSK-3β protein.

Greek Sage Exhibits Neuroprotective Activity against Amyloid Beta-Induced Toxicity

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease, affecting the elderly at a high incidence. AD is of unknown etiology and currently, no cure is available. Present medication is restricted to treating symptoms; thus, a need exists for the development of effective remedies. Medicinal plants constitute a large pool, from which active compounds of great pharmaceutical potential can be derived. Various Salvia spp. are considered as neuroprotective, and here, the ability of Salvia fruticosa (SF) to protect against toxic effects induced in an AD cell model was partly assessed. Two of AD's characteristic hallmarks are the presence of elevated oxidative stress levels and the cytotoxic aggregation of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides. Thus, we obtained SF extracts in three different solvents of increasing polarity, consecutively, to evaluate (a) their antioxidant capacity with the employment of the free radical scavenging assay (DPPH^•), of the ferric reducing ability of plasma assay (FRAP), and of the cellular reactive oxygen species assay (DCFDA) and (b) their neuroprotective properties against Aβ_25–35-induced cell death with the use of an MTT assay. All three SF extracts showed a considerable antioxidant capacity, with the methanol (SFM) extract being the strongest. The results of the total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC) of the extracts and of the FRAP and the DCFDA assays showed a similar pattern. In addition, and most importantly, the dichloromethane (SFD) and the petroleum ether (SFP) extracts had an effect on Aβ toxicity, exhibiting a significant neuroprotective potential. To our knowledge, this is the first report of SF extracts demonstrating neuroprotective potential against Aβ toxicity. In combination with their antioxidant capacity, SF extracts may be beneficial in combating AD and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Polyphenols Extracted from Chinese Hickory (Carya cathayensis) Promote Apoptosis and Inhibit Proliferation through the p53-Dependent Intrinsic and HIF-1α-VEGF Pathways in Ovarian Cancer Cells

Ovarian cancer is the second most common gynecologic cancer with an estimated 13,940 mortalities across the United States in 2020. Natural polyphenols have been shown to double the survival time of some cancer patients due to their anticancer properties. Therefore, the effect of polyphenols extracted from Chinese hickory seed skin Carya cathayensis (CHSP) on ovarian cancer was investigated in the present study. Cell viability results showed that CHSP is more effective in inhibiting ovarian cancer cells than normal ovarian cells, with the IC50 value for inhibition of cell proliferation of Ovarian cancer cells (OVCAR-3) being 10.33 ± 0.166 μg/mL for a 24 h treatment. Flow cytometry results showed that the apoptosis rate was significantly increased to 44.21% after 24 h treatment with 20 μg/mL of CHSP. Western blot analysis showed that CHSP induced apoptosis of ovarian cancer cells through a p53-dependent intrinsic pathway. Compared with control values, levels of VEGF excreted by OVCAR-3 cancer cells were reduced to 7.87% with a 40 μg/mL CHSP treatment. Consistent with our previous reports, CHSP inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion by regulating the HIF-1α-VEGF pathway. In addition, we also found that the inhibitory effect of CHSP on ovarian cancer is related to the up-regulation of Phosphatase and tension homolog (PTEN) and down-regulation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kappa B). These findings provide some evidence of the anti-ovarian cancer properties of CHSP and support the polyphenols as potential candidates for ovarian cancer adjuvant therapy.

High-Performance Green Extraction of Polyphenolic Antioxidants from Salvia fruticosa Using Cyclodextrins: Optimization, Kinetics, and Composition

S. fruticosa, collectively known as Cretan sage, is a medicinal plant to which a number of bioactivities have been attributed. In spite of its importance in nutrition and pharmacy, reports on the extraction of major polyphenols using sustainable processes are particularly limited. In this study, three common cyclodextrins, namely, methyl β-cyclodextrin (m-β-CD), hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD), and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), were tested as green boosters of aqueous extraction of polyphenols from aerial parts of S. fruticosa. To examine simultaneously important extraction parameters, including the concentration of cyclodextrins (CCD), pH, and liquid-to-solid ratio (RL/S), a Box–Behnken design was chosen, with three central points. Temperature effects on the extraction yield were also considered, by carrying out kinetics. The results showed that m-β-CD was the most effective extraction booster, providing total polyphenols yields that amounted to 98.39 mg gallic acid equivalents g−1 dry mass. The kinetic assay demonstrated that extraction was highly effective at 80 °C, increasing significantly polyphenol yield, as well as the ferric-reducing power and antiradical activity of the extracts. It was also proven that extraction with m-β-CD was the least energy-demanding process. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry examination revealed that m-β-CD might possess higher affinity for luteolin 7-O-glucuronide extraction, but β-CD for rosmarinic acid extraction.