Lipid and Polymer-Based Nanoparticle siRNA Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Synthesis and characterization of poly (β-amino ester) polyplex nanocarrier with high encapsulation and uptake efficiency: impact of extracellular conditions

BACKGROUND

Poly (β-amino Ester) nanocarriers show promise for gene therapy, but their effectiveness can be limited by the environment within the body. This study aims to understand how common cell culture media components affect optimized PBAE nanocarrier performance in gene delivery.

METHODS

Optimized PBAE was synthesized based on Michael addition reaction and characterized by different assays, this study employed techniques like DLS and TEM to characterize PBAE nanocarriers, followed by cellular uptake analysis (flow cytometry and confocal imaging) and evaluation of gene expression under different polymer/DNA ratio ratios and media conditions.

RESULTS

The nanocarriers exhibited size under 200 nm and surface positive charge, with high encapsulation efficiency (up to 95%). Cellular uptake, transfection efficiency, and cytotoxicity were evaluated. Flow cytometry analysis revealed high cellular uptake (over 77% at 1 hour and up to 95% after 3 hours) and good viability. Transfection efficiency reached up to 80% with 2 μg DNA, particularly at weight ratios of 60 and 90.

CONCLUSION

The study also identified factors affecting transfection efficiency, including serum concentration and antibiotics in the culture medium, highlighting the importance of optimizing these conditions for future applications.

Poly (β-amino esters)/Mobil Composition of Matter 41-mediated delivery of siIL-1β alleviates deep vein thrombosis in rat hind limbs

Introduction: Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a major cause of cardiovascular disease-related deaths worldwide and is considered a thrombotic inflammatory disorder. IL-1β, as a key promoter of venous thrombus inflammation, is a potential target for DVT treatment. Constructing a nanocarrier system for intracellular delivery of siIL-1β to silence IL-1β may be an effective strategy for alleviating DVT. Methods: ELISA was used to detect the expression levels of IL-1β and t-PA in the serum of DVT patients and healthy individuals. In vitro, HUVEC cells were treated with IL-1β, and changes in VWF and t-PA expression levels were assessed. PBAE/MCM-41@siIL-1β (PM@siIL-1β) nano-complexes were synthesized, the characterization and biocompatibility of PM@siIL-1β were evaluated. A rat hind limb DVT model was established, and PM@siIL-1β was used to treat DVT rats. Morphology of the inferior vena cava, endothelial cell count, IL-1β, vWF, and t-PA levels, as well as changes in the p38 MAPK and NF-κB pathways, were examined in the different groups. Results: IL-1β and t-PA were highly expressed in DVT patients, and IL-1β treatment induced a decrease in VWF levels and an increase in t-PA levels in HUVEC cells. The synthesized PM@siIL-1β exhibited spherical shape, good stability, high encapsulation efficiency, and high drug loading capacity, with excellent biocompatibility. In the DVT model rats, the inferior vena cava was filled with blood clots, endothelial cells increased, IL-1β and VWF levels significantly increased, while t-PA levels were significantly downregulated. Treatment with PM@siIL-1β resulted in reduced thrombus formation, decreased endothelial cell count, and reversal of IL-1β, VWF, and t-PA levels. Furthermore, PM@siIL-1β treatment significantly inhibited p38 phosphorylation and upregulation of NF-κB expression in the DVT model group. Conclusion: IL-1β can be considered a therapeutic target for suppressing DVT inflammation. The synthesized PM@siIL-1β achieved efficient delivery and gene silencing of siIL-1β, demonstrating good therapeutic effects on rat hind limb DVT, including anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory effects, potentially mediated through the p38 MAPK and NF-κB pathways.

Glioblastoma therapy: State of the field and future prospects

Glioblastoma (GB) is a cancerous brain tumor that originates from glial cells and leads to thousands of deaths each year and a five-year survival of only 6.8 %. Treatments for GB include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and immunotherapy. GB is an incurable fatal disease, necessitating the development of innovative strategies to find a developing effective therapy. Genetic therapies may be crucial in treating GB by identifying the mutations and amplifications of multiple genes, which drive its proliferation and spread. Use of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) provides a novel technology used to suppress the genes associated with disease, which forms a basis for targeted therapy in GB and its stem cell population, which are recognized for their ability to develop resistance to chemotherapy and tumorigenic capabilities. This review examines the use of siRNAs in GB, emphasizing their effectiveness in suppressing key oncogenes and signaling pathways associated with tumor development, invasion, stemness, and resistance to standard treatments. siRNA-based gene silencing is a promising approach for developing targeted therapeutics against GB and associated stem cell populations, potentially enhancing patient outcomes and survival rates in this devastating disease.

Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with metformin and digoxin synergistically inhibit MCF-7 breast cancer cells through suppression of NOTCH-1 and HIF-1α gene expression

This study investigated the potential anticancer efficacy of co-treating the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line with chitosan nanoparticles (Cs NPs) loaded with metformin (Met) and digoxin (Dig). The Cs NPs had a size range of 90.6-148.7 nm and a zeta potential of +11.7 to +11.9 mV, indicating a positive surface charge. Notably, the Cs NPs demonstrated high encapsulation efficiencies, with values of 90.97 ± 5.14 % for Met and 92.12 ± 3.81 % for Dig, indicating effective loading of both drugs. The results revealed that the co-delivery of Met and Dig via Cs NPs significantly enhanced the anticancer efficacy, outperforming the treatment with individual free drugs or their combination, thereby demonstrating the potential benefits of nanoparticle-mediated co-administration. The drugs-loaded Cs NPs induced a marked increase in apoptosis in MCF-7 cells, with a cell death rate of 67.56 %, and significantly reduced mammosphere size by 48.08 %, thereby demonstrating a superior therapeutic efficacy compared to treatment with individual free drugs or their combination. Notably, the drug-loaded Cs NPs exhibited potent anti-migratory and anti-angiogenic effects, significantly inhibiting cell migration and new blood vessel formation, which may contribute to overcoming the inherent resistance of tumors to conventional therapies. Mechanistically, the co-treatment with drugs-loaded Cs NPs was found to downregulate the expression of NOTCH-1 and HIF-1α, two key transcription factors involved in tumor cell survival and adaptation, suggesting that their inhibition is a crucial component of the therapeutic efficacy of this treatment strategy. Collectively, the findings of this study suggest that the co-delivery of Met and Dig via chitosan Cs NPs represents a promising therapeutic strategy for breast cancer, as it effectively targets key pathways involved in tumor growth and progression, and underscores the potential of Cs NPs as a versatile platform for cancer therapy.

Innovative Nanomedicine Delivery: Targeting Tumor Microenvironment to Defeat Drug Resistance

Nanodrug delivery systems have revolutionized tumor therapy like never before. By overcoming the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and bypassing drug resistance mechanisms, nanotechnology has shown great potential to improve drug efficacy and reduce toxic side effects. This review examines the impact of the TME on drug resistance and recent advances in nanomedicine delivery systems to overcome this challenge. Characteristics of the TME such as hypoxia, acidity, and high interstitial pressure significantly reduce the effectiveness of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, leading to increased drug resistance in tumor cells. Then, this review summarizes innovative nanocarrier designs for these microenvironmental features, including hypoxia-sensitive nanoparticles, pH-responsive carriers, and multifunctional nanosystems that enable targeted drug release and improved drug penetration and accumulation in tumors. By combining nanotechnology with therapeutic strategies, this review offers a novel perspective by focusing on the innovative design of nanocarriers that interact with the TME, a dimension often overlooked in similar reviews. We highlight the dual role of these nanocarriers in therapeutic delivery and TME modulation, emphasize their potential to overcome drug resistance, and look at future research directions.

Targeted delivery of FAK siRNA by engineered exosomes to reverse cetuximab resistance via activating paraptosis in colon cancer

BACKGROUND

Cetuximab is extensively used in the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC). However, resistance poses a significant challenge to successful therapy. Recently, paraptosis, a non-classical programmed cell death, has garnered increased attention for its potential application value in antitumor treatments. We aimed to identify the essential pathways and signaling molecules involved in paraptosis inhibition and select them as therapeutic targets in cetuximab resistance. Additionally, engineered exosome technology is used as a drug delivery system with both targeted and effector properties.

RESULTS

By comparing the differential expression of paraptosis-related genes between drug-resistant colon cancer cells and sensitive cells, it was observed that the paraptosis level induced by cetuximab was significantly downregulated in drug-resistant cells. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis identified the focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signaling pathway as a key pathway involved in the suppression of paraptosis. The biological function of FAK in cetuximab-resistant cells was investigated through cell morphology observation, CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay, RT-qPCR, Western Blot, and loss-of-function experiments. The results showed that the FAK signaling pathway was significantly upregulated in cetuximab-resistant colon cancer cells, and siRNA interference targeting FAK could notably inhibit cell proliferation while upregulating the paraptosis level. Based on this, engineered colon cancer cells targeted and FAK siRNA loaded exosomes (CT-Exo-siFAK1) were constructed. In vitro experiments, CT-Exo-siFAK1 could effectively activate paraptosis and inhibit the proliferation of drug-resistant colon cancer cells. In vivo experiments also confirmed that CT-Exo-siFAK1 significantly suppressed tumor growth and metastasis while upregulating the paraptosis level.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that FAK signaling pathway-mediated inhibition of paraptosis levels is crucial in the sensitivity of cetuximab targeted therapy in colon cancer, and the use of engineered exosomes to deliver FAK siRNA may be an effective strategy to reverse cetuximab resistance.

Advancing gastric cancer treatment: nanotechnology innovations and future prospects

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fifth most common cancer worldwide, particularly prevalent in Asia, especially in China, where both its incidence and mortality rates are significantly high. Meanwhile, nanotechnology has demonstrated great potential in the treatment of GC. In particular, nanodrug delivery systems have improved therapeutic efficacy and targeting through various functional modifications, such as targeting peptides, tumor microenvironment responsiveness, and instrument-based methods. For instance, silica (SiO2) has excellent biocompatibility and can be used as a drug carrier, with its porous structure enhancing drug loading capacity. Polymer nanoparticles regulate drug release rates and mechanisms by altering material composition and preparation methods. Lipid nanoparticles efficiently encapsulate hydrophilic drugs and promote cellular uptake, while carbon-based nanoparticles can be used in biosensors and drug delivery. Targets such as integrins, HER2 receptors, and the tumor microenvironment have been used to improve drug efficacy in GC treatment. Nanodrug delivery techniques not only enhance drug efficacy and delivery capabilities but also selectively target tumor cells. Currently, there is a lack of systematic summarization and synthesis regarding the relationship between nanodrug delivery systems and GC treatment, which to some extent hinders researchers and clinicians from efficiently searching for and referencing related studies, thereby reducing work efficiency. This study aims to systematically summarize the existing research on the relationship between nanodrug delivery systems and GC treatment, making it easier for professionals to search and reference, and thereby promoting further research on the role of nanodrug delivery systems and their clinical applications in GC. This review discusses the applications of functionalized nanocarriers in the treatment of GC in recent years, including surface modifications with targeted markers, the combination of phototherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, along with their advantages and challenges. It also examines the future prospects of targeted nanomaterials in GC treatment. The review particularly focuses on the combined application of nanocarriers in multiple treatment modalities, such as phototherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, demonstrating their potential in multimodal treatments. Furthermore, it thoroughly explores the specific challenges that nanocarriers face in GC treatment, such as biocompatibility, drug release control, and clinical translation issues, while providing a systematic outlook on future developments. Additionally, this study emphasizes the potential value and feasibility of nanocarriers in clinical applications, contrasting with most reviews that focus on basic research. Through these innovations, we offer new perspectives and directions for the development of nanotechnology in the treatment of GC.

Nanotechnological approaches for efficient N2B delivery: from small-molecule drugs to biopharmaceuticals

Central nervous system diseases negatively affect patients and society. Providing successful noninvasive treatments for these diseases is challenging because of the presence of the blood-brain barrier. While protecting the brain's homeostasis, the barrier limits the passage of almost all large-molecule drugs and most small-molecule drugs. A noninvasive method, nose-to-brain delivery (N2B delivery) has been proposed to overcome this challenge. By exploiting the direct anatomical interaction between the nose and the brain, the drugs can reach the target, the brain. Moreover, the drugs can be encapsulated into various drug delivery systems to enhance physicochemical characteristics and targeting success. Many preclinical data show that this strategy can effectively deliver biopharmaceuticals to the brain. Therefore, this review focuses on N2B delivery while giving examples of different drug delivery systems suitable for the applications. In addition, we emphasize the importance of the effective delivery of monoclonal antibodies and RNA and stress the recent literature tackling this challenge. While giving examples of nanotechnological approaches for the effective delivery of small or large molecules from the current literature, we highlight the preclinical studies and their results to prove the strategies' success and limitations.

Targeted immunotherapy and nanomedicine for rhabdomyosarcoma: The way of the future

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma of childhood. Histology separates two main subtypes: embryonal RMS (eRMS; 60%-70%) and alveolar RMS (aRMS; 20%-30%). The aggressive aRMS carry one of two characteristic chromosomal translocations that result in the expression of a PAX3::FOXO1 or PAX7::FOXO1 fusion transcription factor; therefore, aRMS are now classified as fusion-positive (FP) RMS. Embryonal RMS have a better prognosis and are clinically indistinguishable from fusion-negative (FN) RMS. Next to histology and molecular characteristics, RMS risk groupings are now available defining low risk tumors with excellent outcomes and advanced stage disease with poor prognosis, with an overall survival of about only 20% despite intensified multimodal treatment. Therefore, development of novel effective targeted strategies to increase survival and to decrease long-term side effects is urgently needed. Recently, immunotherapies and nanomedicine have been emerging for potent and effective tumor treatments with minimal side effects, raising hopes for effective and safe cures for RMS patients. This review aims to describe the most relevant preclinical and clinical studies in immunotherapy and targeted nanomedicine performed so far in RMS and to provide an insight in future developments.

Recent advancements in small interfering RNA based therapeutic approach on breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common and malignant tumor diagnosed in women, with 2.9 million cases in 2023 and the fifth highest cancer-causing mortality worldwide. Recent developments in targeted therapy options for BC have demonstrated the promising potential of small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based cancer therapeutic approaches. As BC continues to be a global burden, siRNA therapy emerges as a potential treatment strategy to regulate disease-related genes in other types of cancers, including BC. siRNAs are tiny RNA molecules that, by preventing their expression, can specifically silence genes linked to the development of cancer. In order to increase the stability and effectiveness of siRNA delivery to BC cells, minimize off-target effects, and improve treatment efficacy, advanced delivery technologies such as lipid nanoparticles and nanocarriers have been created. Additionally, combination therapies, such as siRNAs that target multiple pathways are used in conjunction with conventional chemotherapy agents, have shown synergistic effects in various preclinical studies, opening up new treatment options for breast cancer that are personalized and precision medicine-oriented. Targeting important genes linked to BC growth, metastasis, and chemo-resistance has been reported in BC research using siRNA-based therapies. This study reviews recent reports on therapeutic approaches to siRNA for advanced treatment of BC. Furthermore, this review evaluates the role and mechanisms of siRNA in BC and demonstrates the potential of exploiting siRNA as a novel target for BC therapy.

Exploring dose and downregulation dynamics in lipid nanoparticles based siRNA therapy: Systematic review and meta-analysis

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) holds promise as a therapeutic approach for various diseases, yet challenges persist in achieving efficient delivery, biodistribution, and minimizing off-target effects. Lipidic nanoformulations are being developed to address these hurdles, but the optimal dose for preclinical investigations remains unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to determine the optimal dose of nanoformulated siRNA and explore factors influencing dose and biodistribution, informing future research in this field. A comprehensive search across four electronic databases identified 25 potential studies, with 15 selected for meta-analysis after screening. Quality assessment was conducted using SYRCLE's risk of bias tool modified for animal studies based on research question. Study found an average siRNA dose of 1.513 ± 0.377 mg/kg with mean downregulation of 65.79 % achieved, with siRNA-LNPs mainly accumulating in the liver. While individual factors showed no significant correlation, a positive association between dose and downregulation was observed, alongside other influencing factors. Extrapolating intravenous doses to potential oral doses, we suggest an initial oral dose range of 1.5 to 8 mg/kg, considering siRNA-LNPs bioavailability. These findings contribute to advancing RNA interference research and encourage further exploration of siRNA-based treatments in personalized medicine.

Enhancing siRNA cancer therapy: Multifaceted strategies with lipid and polymer-based carrier systems

Cancers are increasing in prevalence and many challenges remain for their treatment, such as chemoresistance and toxicity. In this context, siRNA-based therapeutics have many potential advantages for cancer therapies as a result of their ability to reduce or prevent expression of specific cancer-related genes. However, the direct delivery of naked siRNA is hindered by issues like enzymatic degradation, insufficient cellular uptake, and poor pharmacokinetics. Hence, the discovery of a safe and efficient delivery vehicle is essential. This review explores various lipid and polymer-based delivery systems for siRNA in cancer treatment. Both polymers and lipids have garnered considerable attention as carriers for siRNA delivery. While all of these systems protect siRNA and enhance transfection efficacy, each exhibits its unique strengths. Lipid-based delivery systems, for instance, demonstrate high entrapment efficacy and utilize cost-effective materials. Conversely, polymeric-based delivery systems offer advantages through chemical modifications. Nonetheless, certain drawbacks still limit their usage. To address these limitations, combining different materials in formulations (lipid, polymer, or targeting agent) could enhance pharmaceutical properties, boost transfection efficacy, and reduce side effects. Furthermore, co-delivery of siRNA with other therapeutic agents presents a promising strategy to overcome cancer resistance. Lipid-based delivery systems have been demonstrated to encapsulate many therapeutic agents and with high efficiency, but most are limited in terms of the functionalities they display. In contrast, polymeric-based delivery systems can be chemically modified by a wide variety of routes to include multiple components, such as release or targeting elements, from the same materials backbone. Accordingly, by incorporating multiple materials such as lipids, polymers, and/or targeting agents in RNA formulations it is possible to improve the pharmaceutical properties and therapeutic efficacy while reducing side effects. This review focuses on strategies to improve siRNA cancer treatments and discusses future prospects in this important field.

Supramolecular Bioconjugation Strategy for Antibody-Targeted Delivery of siRNA

RNA interference is a widely used biological process by which double-stranded RNA induces sequence-specific gene silencing by targeting mRNA for degradation. However, the physicochemical properties of siRNAs make their delivery extremely challenging, thus limiting their bioavailability at the target site. In this context, we developed a versatile and selective siRNA delivery system of a trastuzumab-conjugated nanocarrier. These immunoconjugates consist of the assembly by electrostatic interactions of an oligonucleotide-modified antibody with a cationic micelle for the targeted delivery of siRNA in HER2-overexpressing cancer cells. Results show that, when associated with the corresponding siRNA at the appropriate N/P ratio, our supramolecular assembly was able to efficiently induce luciferase and PLK-1 gene silencing in a cell-selective manner in vitro.

Preparation of transferrin-targeted temozolomide nano-micelles and their anti-glioma effect

Objectives

This study aims to develop brain-targeted temozolomide (TMZ) nanograins using the biodegradable polymer material PEG-PLA as a carrier. The model drug TMZ was encapsulated within the polymer using targeted nanotechnology. Key characteristics such as appearance, particle size, size distribution, drug loading capacity, in vitro release rate, stability, and anti-tumor effects were systematically evaluated through in vitro experiments.

Methods

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Malvern size analyzer were employed to observe the morphological and particle size features of the TMZ nanospheres at various time points to assess stability. The effects of TMZ nanograins on glioma cell viability and apoptosis were evaluated using MTT assays and flow cytometry.

Results

The targeted TMZ nano-micelles were successfully synthesized. After loading and targeted modifications, the particle size increased from 50.7 to 190 nm, indicating successful encapsulation of TMZ. The average particle size of the nano-micelles remained stable around 145 ± 10 nm at 1 day, 15 days, and 30 days post-preparation. The release rate of the nano-micelles was monitored at 2 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h post-dialysis, ultimately reaching 95.8%. Compared to TMZ alone, the TMZ-loaded PEG-PLA nano-micelles exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in glioma cells. This was accompanied by increased mitochondrial membrane potential and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels following treatment with the TMZ nano-micelles.

Conclusions

TMZ-loaded nano-micelles demonstrated a gradual release profile and significantly enhanced inhibitory effects on human glioma U251 cells compared to TMZ alone. The findings suggest that TMZ-loaded PEG-PLA nano-micelles may offer a more effective therapeutic approach for glioma treatment.

Recent Advances in RNA Interference-Based Therapy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Emphasis on siRNA

Even though RNA treatments were first proposed as a way to change aberrant signaling in cancer, research in this field is currently ongoing. The term "RNAi" refers to the use of several RNAi technologies, including ribozymes, riboswitches, Aptamers, small interfering RNA (siRNA), antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and CRISPR/Cas9 technology. The siRNA therapy has already achieved a remarkable feat by revolutionizing the treatment arena of cancers. Unlike small molecules and antibodies, which need administration every three months or even every two years, RNAi may be given every quarter to attain therapeutic results. In order to overcome complex challenges, delivering siRNAs to the targeted tissues and cells effectively and safely and improving the effectiveness of siRNAs in terms of their action, stability, specificity, and potential adverse consequences are required. In this context, the three primary techniques of siRNA therapies for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are accomplished for inhibiting angiogenesis, decreasing cell proliferation, and promoting apoptosis, are discussed in this review. We also deliberate targeting issues, immunogenic reactions to siRNA therapy, and the difficulties with their intrinsic chemistry and transportation.

Strategies for Targeting Peptide-Modified Exosomes and Their Applications in the Lungs

Exosomes belong to a subgroup of extracellular vesicles secreted by various cells and are involved in intercellular communication and material transfer. In recent years, exosomes have been used as drug delivery carriers because of their natural origin, high stability, low immunogenicity and high engineering ability. However, achieving targeted drug delivery with exosomes remains challenging. In this paper, a phage display technology was used to screen targeted peptides, and different surface modification strategies of targeted peptide exosomes were reviewed. In addition, the application of peptide-targeted exosomes in pulmonary diseases was also summarised.

Navigating Lipodystrophy: Insights from Laminopathies and Beyond

Recent research into laminopathic lipodystrophies-rare genetic disorders caused by mutations in the LMNA gene-has greatly expanded our knowledge of their complex pathology and metabolic implications. These disorders, including Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS), Mandibuloacral Dysplasia (MAD), and Familial Partial Lipodystrophy (FPLD), serve as crucial models for studying accelerated aging and metabolic dysfunction, enhancing our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved. Research on laminopathies has highlighted how LMNA mutations disrupt adipose tissue function and metabolic regulation, leading to altered fat distribution and metabolic pathway dysfunctions. Such insights improve our understanding of the pathophysiological interactions between genetic anomalies and metabolic processes. This review merges current knowledge on the phenotypic classifications of these diseases and their associated metabolic complications, such as insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia, hepatic steatosis, and metabolic syndrome, all of which elevate the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and diabetes. Additionally, a range of published therapeutic strategies, including gene editing, antisense oligonucleotides, and novel pharmacological interventions aimed at addressing defective adipocyte differentiation and lipid metabolism, will be explored. These therapies target the core dysfunctional lamin A protein, aiming to mitigate symptoms and provide a foundation for addressing similar metabolic and genetic disorders.

Nanoparticle-mediated diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of breast cancer

By virtue of their advanced physicochemical properties, nanoparticles have attracted significant attention from researchers for application in diverse fields of medical science. Breast cancer, presenting a high risk of morbidity and mortality, frequently occurs in women and is considered a malignant tumor. Globally, breast cancer is considered the second leading cause of death. Accordingly, its poor prognosis, invasive metastasis, and relapse have motivated oncologists and nano-medical researchers to develop highly potent nanotherapies to cure this deadly disease. In this case, nanoparticles have emerged as responsive platforms for breast cancer management, providing new approaches to improve the diagnostic accuracy, deliver targeted therapies, and limit the progression of this disease. Recently, smart nano-carriers encapsulating drugs, ligands, and tracking probes have been developed for the specific therapy of breast cancers. Further, efforts have been devoted to developing various nano-systems with minimal toxicity. The aim of this review is to present a background on novel nanotheranostic methods that can be employed to diagnose and treat breast cancers and encourage readers to focus on the development of novel nanomedicine for breast cancers and other deadly diseases. In this context, we discuss different methods for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of breast cancers using different metal and metal oxide nanoparticles.

Modifications of Nanobubble Therapy for Cancer Treatment

Cancer development is related to genetic mutations in primary cells, where 5-10% of all cancers are derived from acquired genetic defects, most of which are a consequence of the environment and lifestyle. As it turns out, over half of cancer deaths are due to the generation of drug resistance. The local delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs may reduce their toxicity by increasing their therapeutic dose at targeted sites and by decreasing the plasma levels of circulating drugs. Nanobubbles have attracted much attention as an effective drug distribution system due to their non-invasiveness and targetability. This review aims to present the characteristics of nanobubble systems and their efficacy within the biomedical field with special emphasis on cancer treatment. In vivo and in vitro studies on cancer confirm nanobubbles' ability and good blood capillary perfusion; however, there is a need to define their safety and side effects in clinical trials.

Design Principles for Smart Linear Polymer Ligand Carriers with Efficient Transcellular Transport Capabilities

The surface functionalization of polymer-mediated drug/gene delivery holds immense potential for disease therapy. However, the design principles underlying the surface functionalization of polymers remain elusive. In this study, we employed computer simulations to demonstrate how the stiffness, length, density, and distribution of polymer ligands influence their penetration ability across the cell membrane. Our simulations revealed that the stiffness of polymer ligands affects their ability to transport cargo across the membrane. Increasing the stiffness of polymer ligands can promote their delivery across the membrane, particularly for larger cargoes. Furthermore, appropriately increasing the length of polymer ligands can be more conducive to assisting cargo to enter the lower layer of the membrane. Additionally, the distribution of polymer ligands on the surface of the cargo also plays a crucial role in its transport. Specifically, the one-fourth mode and stripy mode distributions of polymer ligands exhibited higher penetration ability, assisting cargoes in penetrating the membrane. These findings provide biomimetic inspiration for designing high-efficiency functionalization polymer ligands for drug/gene delivery.

siRNA-based therapy for gastric adenocarcinoma: what's next step?

Gastric cancer continues to have a high death rate despite advancements in their diagnosis and treatment. Novel treatment techniques are thus desperately needed. This is where double-stranded RNA molecules known as small interfering RNA (siRNA), which may selectively target the mRNA of disease-causing genes, may find use in medicine. For siRNAs to function properly in the human body, they must be shielded from deterioration. Furthermore, in order to maintain organ function, they must only target the tumor and spare normal tissue. siRNAs have been designed using clever delivery mechanisms including polymers and lipids to achieve these objectives. Although siRNA protection is not hard to acquire, it is still challenging to target cancer cells with them. Here, we first discuss the basic characteristics of gastric cancer before describing the properties of siRNA and typical delivery methods created specifically for gastric tumors. Lastly, we provide a succinct overview of research using siRNAs to treat gastric tumors.

Monocytic Differentiation of Human Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells: A Proteomic and Phosphoproteomic Comparison of FAB-M4/M5 Patients with and without Nucleophosmin 1 Mutations

Even though morphological signs of differentiation have a minimal impact on survival after intensive cytotoxic therapy for acute myeloid leukemia (AML), monocytic AML cell differentiation (i.e., classified as French/American/British (FAB) subtypes M4/M5) is associated with a different responsiveness both to Bcl-2 inhibition (decreased responsiveness) and possibly also bromodomain inhibition (increased responsiveness). FAB-M4/M5 patients are heterogeneous with regard to genetic abnormalities, even though monocytic differentiation is common for patients with Nucleophosmin 1 (NPM1) insertions/mutations; to further study the heterogeneity of FAB-M4/M5 patients we did a proteomic and phosphoproteomic comparison of FAB-M4/M5 patients with (n = 13) and without (n = 12) NPM1 mutations. The proteomic profile of NPM1-mutated FAB-M4/M5 patients was characterized by increased levels of proteins involved in the regulation of endocytosis/vesicle trafficking/organellar communication. In contrast, AML cells without NPM1 mutations were characterized by increased levels of several proteins involved in the regulation of cytoplasmic translation, including a large number of ribosomal proteins. The phosphoproteomic differences between the two groups were less extensive but reflected similar differences. To conclude, even though FAB classification/monocytic differentiation are associated with differences in responsiveness to new targeted therapies (e.g., Bcl-2 inhibition), our results shows that FAB-M4/M5 patients are heterogeneous with regard to important biological characteristics of the leukemic cells.

Navigating the future: Microfluidics charting new routes in drug delivery

Microfluidics has emerged as a transformative force in the field of drug delivery, offering innovative avenues to produce a diverse range of nano drug delivery systems. Thanks to its precise manipulation of small fluid volumes and its exceptional command over the physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles, this technology is notably able to enhance the pharmacokinetics of drugs. It has initiated a revolutionary phase in the domain of drug delivery, presenting a multitude of compelling advantages when it comes to developing nanocarriers tailored for the delivery of poorly soluble medications. These advantages represent a substantial departure from conventional drug delivery methodologies, marking a paradigm shift in pharmaceutical research and development. Furthermore, microfluidic platformsmay be strategically devised to facilitate targeted drug delivery with the objective of enhancing the localized bioavailability of pharmaceutical substances. In this paper, we have comprehensively investigated a range of significant microfluidic techniques used in the production of nanoscale drug delivery systems. This comprehensive review can serve as a valuable reference and offer insightful guidance for the development and optimization of numerous microfluidics-fabricated nanocarriers.

A Comprehensive Analysis of Biopharmaceutical Products Listed in the FDA's Purple Book

Although biopharmaceuticals constitute around 10% of the drug landscape, eight of the ten top-selling products were biopharmaceuticals in 2023. This study did a comprehensive analysis of the FDA's Purple Book database. Firstly, our research uncovered market trends and provided insights into biologics distributions. According to the investigation, although biotechnology has advanced and legislative shifts have made the approval process faster, there are still challenges to overcome, such as molecular instability and formulation design. Moreover, our research comprehensively analyzed biological formulations, pointing out significant strategies regarding administration routes, dosage forms, product packaging, and excipients. In conjunction with biologics, the widespread integration of innovative delivery strategies will be implemented to confront the evolving challenges in healthcare and meet an expanding array of treatment needs.

Enhanced plant-derived vesicles for nucleotide delivery for cancer therapy

Small RNAs (microRNAs [miRNAs] or small interfering RNAs [siRNAs]) are effective tools for cancer therapy, but many of the existing carriers for their delivery are limited by low bioavailability, insufficient loading, impaired transport across biological barriers, and low delivery into the tumor microenvironment. Extracellular vesicle (EV)-based communication in mammalian and plant systems is important for many physiological and pathological processes, and EVs show promise as carriers for RNA interference molecules. However, some fundamental issues limit their use, such as insufficient cargo loading and low potential for scaling production. Plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) are membrane-coated vesicles released in the apoplastic fluid of plants that contain biomolecules that play a role in several biological mechanisms. Here, we developed an alternative approach to deliver miRNA for cancer therapy using PDVs. We isolated vesicles from watermelon and formulated a hybrid, exosomal, polymeric system in which PDVs were combined with a dendrimer bound to miRNA146 mimic. Third generation PAMAM was chosen due to its high branching structure and versatility for loading molecules of interest. We performed several in vivo experiments to demonstrate the therapeutic efficacy of our compound and explored in vitro biological mechanisms underlying the anti-tumor effects of miRNA146, which are mostly related to its anti-angiogenic activity.

Knockout cancer by nano-delivered immunotherapy using perfusion-aided scaffold-based tumor-on-a-chip

Cancer is a multifactorial disease produced by mutations in the oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, which result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and resistance to cell death. Cancer progresses due to the escape of altered cells from immune monitoring, which is facilitated by the tumor's mutual interaction with its microenvironment. Understanding the mechanisms involved in immune surveillance evasion and the significance of the tumor microenvironment might thus aid in developing improved therapies. Although in vivo models are commonly utilized, they could be better for time, cost, and ethical concerns. As a result, it is critical to replicate an in vivo model and recreate the cellular and tissue-level functionalities. A 3D cell culture, which gives a 3D architecture similar to that found in vivo, is an appropriate model. Furthermore, numerous cell types can be cocultured, establishing cellular interactions between TME and tumor cells. Moreover, microfluidics perfusion can provide precision flow rates, thus simulating tissue/organ function. Immunotherapy can be used with the perfused 3D cell culture technique to help develop successful therapeutics. Immunotherapy employing nano delivery can target the spot and silence the responsible genes, ensuring treatment effectiveness while minimizing adverse effects. This study focuses on the importance of 3D cell culture in understanding the pathophysiology of 3D tumors and TME, the function of TME in drug resistance, tumor progression, and the development of advanced anticancer therapies for high-throughput drug screening.

SiRNA-HIF-1α delivered by attenuated Salmonella enhances the efficacy of Lenvatinib against hepatocellular carcinoma

The treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a major challenge in the medical field. Lenvatinib, a multi-target tyrosine kinase inhibitor, has demonstrated anti-HCC effects by targeting and inhibiting pathways such as vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1-3 (VEGFR1-3). However, the therapeutic efficacy of Lenvatinib is subject to various influences, with the hypoxic microenvironment of the tumor being a pivotal factor. Consequently, altering the hypoxic milieu of the tumor emerges as a viable strategy to augment the efficacy of Lenvatinib. Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), synthesized by tumor cells in response to oxygen-deprived conditions, regulates the expression of resistance genes, promotes tumor angiogenesis and cell proliferation, enhances tumor cell invasion, and confers resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Thus, we constructed a self-designed siRNA targeting HIF-1α to suppress its expression and improve the efficacy of Lenvatinib in treating HCC. The therapeutic efficacy of siRNA-HIF-1α in combination with Lenvatinib on HCC were evaluated through in vivo and in vitro experiments. The results showed that the recombinant Salmonella delivering siRNA-HIF-1α in combination with Lenvatinib effectively inhibited tumor growth and prolonged the survival of tumor-bearing mice. This treatment approach reduced cell proliferation and angiogenesis in HCC tissues while promoting tumor cell apoptosis. Additionally, this combined therapy significantly increased the infiltration of T lymphocytes and M1 macrophages within the tumor microenvironment, as well as elevated the proportion of immune cells in the spleen, thereby potentiating the host's immune response against the tumor.

Which Lipid Nanoparticle (LNP) Designs Work? A Simple Kinetic Model Linking LNP Chemical Structure to In Vivo Delivery Performance

Although lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are the predominant nanocarriers for short-interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery, most therapies use nearly identical formulations that have taken 30 years to design but lack the diverse property ranges necessary for versatile application. This dearth in variety and the extended timeline for implementation are attributed to a limited understanding of how LNP properties facilitate overcoming biological barriers. Herein, a simple kinetic model was developed by using major rate-limiting steps for siRNA delivery, and this model enabled the identification of a critical parameter to predict LNP efficacy without extensive experimental testing. A volume-averaged log D, the "solubility" of charged molecules as a function of pH weighted by component volume fractions, resulted in a good correlation between LNP composition and siRNA delivery. Both the effects of modifying the structures of ionizable lipids and LNP composition on gene silencing were easily captured in the model predictions. Thus, this approach provides a robust LNP structure-activity relationship to dramatically accelerate the realization of effective LNP formulations.

Lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated DNA vaccine robustly induce superior immune responses to the mRNA vaccine in Syrian hamsters

DNA vaccines for infectious diseases and cancer have been explored for years. To date, only one DNA vaccine (ZyCoV-D) has been authorized for emergency use in India. DNA vaccines are inexpensive and long-term thermostable, however, limited by the low efficiency of intracellular delivery. The recent success of mRNA/lipid nanoparticle (LNP) technology in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has opened a new application for nucleic acid-based vaccines. Here, we report that plasmid encoding a trimeric spike protein with LNP delivery (pTS/LNP), similar to those in Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine, induced more effective humoral responses than naked pTS or pTS delivered via electroporation. Compared with TSmRNA/LNP, pTS/LNP immunization induced a comparable level of neutralizing antibody titers and significant T helper 1-biased immunity in mice; it also prolonged the maintenance of higher antigen-specific IgG and neutralizing antibody titers in hamsters. Importantly, pTS/LNP immunization exhibits enhanced cross-neutralizing activity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants and protects hamsters from the challenge of SARS-CoV-2 (Wuhan strain and the Omicron BA.1 variant). This study indicates that pDNA/LNPs as a promising platform could be a next-generation vaccine technology.

Redox-Responsive Polymeric Nanoparticle for Nucleic Acid Delivery and Cancer Therapy: Progress, Opportunities, and Challenges

Cancer development and progression of cancer are closely associated with the activation of oncogenes and loss of tumor suppressor genes. Nucleic acid drugs (e.g., siRNA, mRNA, and DNA) are widely used for cancer therapy due to their specific ability to regulate the expression of any cancer-associated genes. However, nucleic acid drugs are negatively charged biomacromolecules that are susceptible to serum nucleases and cannot cross cell membrane. Therefore, specific delivery tools are required to facilitate the intracellular delivery of nucleic acid drugs. In the past few decades, a variety of nanoparticles (NPs) are designed and developed for nucleic acid delivery and cancer therapy. In particular, the polymeric NPs in response to the abnormal redox status in cancer cells have garnered much more attention as their potential in redox-triggered nanostructure dissociation and rapid intracellular release of nucleic acid drugs. In this review, the important genes or signaling pathways regulating the abnormal redox status in cancer cells are briefly introduced and the recent development of redox-responsive NPs for nucleic acid delivery and cancer therapy is systemically summarized. The future development of NPs-mediated nucleic acid delivery and their challenges in clinical translation are also discussed.

The landscape of nanoparticle-based siRNA delivery and therapeutic development

Five small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapeutics have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), namely patisiran, givosiran, lumasiran, inclisiran, and vutrisiran. Besides, siRNA delivery to the target site without toxicity is a big challenge for researchers, and naked-siRNA delivery possesses several challenges, including membrane impermeability, enzymatic degradation, mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) entrapment, fast renal excretion, endosomal escape, and off-target effects. The siRNA therapeutics can silence any disease-specific gene, but their intracellular and extracellular barriers limit their clinical applications. For this purpose, several modifications have been employed to siRNA for better transfection efficiency. Still, there is a quest for better delivery systems for siRNA delivery to the target site. In recent years, nanoparticles have shown promising results in siRNA delivery with minimum toxicity and off-target effects. Patisiran is a lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-based siRNA formulation for treating hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis that ultimately warrants the use of nanoparticles from different classes, especially lipid-based nanoparticles. These nanoparticles may belong to different categories, including lipid-based, polymer-based, and inorganic nanoparticles. This review briefly discusses the lipid, polymer, and inorganic nanoparticles and their sub-types for siRNA delivery. Finally, several clinical trials related to siRNA therapeutics are addressed, followed by the future prospects and conclusions.

Circular RNAs and their roles in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive and fatal lung disease with limited treatment options. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have emerged as a novel class of non-coding RNAs with diverse functions in cellular processes. This review paper aims to explore the potential involvement of circRNAs in the pathogenesis of IPF and their diagnostic and therapeutic implications. We begin by providing an overview of the epidemiology and risk factors associated with IPF, followed by a discussion of the pathophysiology underlying this complex disease. Subsequently, we delve into the history, types, biogenesis, and functions of circRNAs and then emphasize their regulatory roles in the pathogenesis of IPF. Furthermore, we examine the current methodologies for detecting circRNAs and explore their diagnostic applications in IPF. Finally, we discuss the potential utility of circRNAs in the treatment of IPF. In conclusion, circRNAs hold great promise as novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets in the management of IPF.

Oleaginous Microbial Lipids' Potential in the Prevention and Treatment of Neurological Disorders

The products of oleaginous microbes, primarily lipids, have gained tremendous attention for their health benefits in food-based applications as supplements. However, this emerging biotechnology also offers a neuroprotective treatment/management potential for various diseases that are seldom discussed. Essential fatty acids, such as DHA, are known to make up the majority of brain phospholipid membranes and are integral to cognitive function, which forms an important defense against Alzheimer's disease. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have also been shown to reduce recurrent epilepsy seizures and have been used in brain cancer therapies. The ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 PUFAs is essential in maintaining physiological function. Furthermore, lipids have also been employed as an effective vehicle to deliver drugs for the treatment of diseases. Lipid nanoparticle technology, used in pharmaceuticals and cosmeceuticals, has recently emerged as a biocompatible, biodegradable, low-toxicity, and high-stability means for drug delivery to address the drawbacks associated with traditional medicine delivery methods. This review aims to highlight the dual benefit that lipids offer in maintaining good health for disease prevention and in the treatment of neurological diseases.

Zinc(II)-Quinoline module and ROS cleavable crosslinker functionalized self-fluorescent siRNA vectors for selective gene silencing of cancer cells

A highly efficient siRNA vector (Zn-PQD) capable of selectively silencing genes in cancer cells was obtained by using ROS-cleavable DED to crosslink low molecular weight (LMW) polyethylene imine (PEI) modified by self-fluorescent metal coordinatied multifunctional module Zn-QS. Under the combined action of DED cross-linking and Zn-QS modification, Zn-PQD performs well in the siRNA delivery process in cancer cells, including siRNA condensation, cell uptake, endosome escape, and siRNA release. Zn-PQD exhibited higher transfection efficiency than commercial PEI25k and Lipo2k in multiple cancer cell lines including HepG2, HeLa, 4 T1, H520 and PANC-1, as well as cancer treatment-related stem cell rADSC. Ultimately, Zn-PQD can achieve extremely high and selective gene silencing effects in cancer cells (with a gene silencing rate of 98.3% in HepG2). This work is expected to provide an efficient and safe siRNA carrier for the future tumor siRNA therapy and its study of fluorescence mediated mechanism.

Research Progress of SN38 Drug Delivery System in Cancer Treatment

The active metabolite of irinotecan (CPT-11), 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN38), is 100-1000 times more active than CPT-11 and has shown inhibitory effects on a range of cancer cells, including those from the rectal, small cell lung, breast, esophageal, uterine, and ovarian malignancies. Despite SN38's potent anticancer properties, its hydrophobicity and pH instability have caused substantial side effects and anticancer activity loss, which make it difficult to use in clinical settings. To solve the above problems, the construction of SN38-based drug delivery systems is one of the most feasible methods to improve drug solubility, enhance drug stability, increase drug targeting ability, improve drug bioavailability, enhance therapeutic efficacy and reduce adverse drug reactions. Therefore, based on the targeting mechanism of drug delivery systems, this paper reviews SN38 drug delivery systems, including polymeric micelles, liposomal nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, protein nanoparticles, conjugated drug delivery systems targeted by aptamers and ligands, antibody-drug couplings, magnetic targeting, photosensitive targeting, redox-sensitive and multi-stimulus-responsive drug delivery systems, and co-loaded drug delivery systems. The focus of this review is on nanocarrier-based SN38 drug delivery systems. We hope to provide a reference for the clinical translation and application of novel SN38 medications.

Inorganic nanocarriers for siRNA delivery for cancer treatments

RNA interference is one of the emerging methodologies utilized in the treatment of a wide variety of diseases including cancer. This method specifically uses therapeutic RNAs (TpRNAs) like small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to regulate/silence the cancer-linked genes, thereby minimizing the distinct activities of the cancer cells while aiding in their apoptosis. But, many complications arise during the transport/delivery of these TpRNAs that include poor systemic circulation, instability/degradation inside the body environment, no targeting capacity and also low cellular internalization. These difficulties can be overcome by using nanocarriers to deliver the TpRNAs inside the cancer cells. The following are the various categories of nanocarriers-viral vectors (e.g. lentivirus and adenovirus) and non-viral nanocarriers (self-assembling nanocarriers and inorganic nanocarriers). Viral vectors suffer from disadvantages like high immunogenicity compared to the non-viral nanocarriers. Among non-viral nanocarriers, inorganic nanocarriers gained significant attention as their inherent properties (like magnetic properties) can aid in the effective cellular delivery of the TpRNAs. Most of the prior reports have discussed about the delivery of TpRNAs through self-assembling nanocarriers; however very few have reviewed about their delivery using the inorganic nanoparticles. Therefore, in this review, we have mainly focussed on the delivery of TpRNAs-i.e. siRNA, especially programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1), survivin, B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), vascular endothelial growth factor and other siRNAs using the inorganic nanoparticles-mainly magnetic, metal and silica nanoparticles. Moreover, we have also discussed about the combined delivery of these TpRNAs along with chemotherapeutic drugs (mainly doxorubicin) andin vitroandin vivotherapeutic effectiveness.

GalNAc-conjugated siRNA targeting the DNAJB1-PRKACA fusion junction in fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma

Fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma (FLC) is a rare liver cancer caused by a dominant recurrent fusion of the heat shock protein (DNAJB1) and the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A (PRKACA). Current therapies such as chemotherapy and radiation have limited efficacy, and new treatment options are needed urgently. We have previously shown that FLC tumors are dependent on the fusion kinase DNAJB1::PRKACA, making the oncokinase an ideal drug target. mRNA degrading modalities such as antisense oligonucleotides or small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) provide an opportunity to specifically target the fusion junction. Here, we identify a potent and specific siRNA that inhibits DNAJB1::PRKACA expression. We found expression of the asialoglycoprotein receptor in FLC to be maintained at sufficient levels to effectively deliver siRNA conjugated to the GalNAc ligand. We observe productive uptake and siRNA activity in FLC patient-derived xenografts (PDX) models in vitro and in vivo. Knockdown of DNAJB1::PRKACA results in durable growth inhibition of FLC PDX in vivo with no detectable toxicities. Our results suggest that this approach could be a treatment option for FLC patients.

Nano-scale delivery systems for siRNA delivery in cancer therapy: New era of gene therapy empowered by nanotechnology

RNA interference (RNAi) is a unique treatment approach used to decrease a disease's excessive gene expression, including cancer. SiRNAs may find and destroy homologous mRNA sequences within the cell thanks to RNAi processes. However, difficulties such poor cellular uptake, off-target effects, and susceptibility to destruction by serum nucleases in the bloodstream restrict the therapeutic potential of siRNAs. Since some years ago, siRNA-based therapies have been in the process of being translated into the clinic. Therefore, the primary emphasis of this work is on sophisticated nanocarriers that aid in the transport of siRNA payloads, their administration in combination with anticancer medications, and their use in the treatment of cancer. The research looks into molecular manifestations, difficulties with siRNA transport, the design and development of siRNA-based delivery methods, and the benefits and drawbacks of various nanocarriers. The trapping of siRNA in endosomes is a challenge for the majority of delivery methods, which affects the therapeutic effectiveness. Numerous techniques for siRNA release, including as pH-responsive release, membrane fusion, the proton sponge effect, and photochemical disruption, have been studied to overcome this problem. The present state of siRNA treatments in clinical trials is also looked at in order to give a thorough and systematic evaluation of siRNA-based medicines for efficient cancer therapy.

A Comprehensive Review of Small Interfering RNAs (siRNAs): Mechanism, Therapeutic Targets, and Delivery Strategies for Cancer Therapy

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery by nanocarriers has been identified as a promising strategy in the study and treatment of cancer. Short nucleotide sequences are synthesized exogenously to create siRNA, which triggers RNA interference (RNAi) in cells and silences target gene expression in a sequence-specific way. As a nucleic acid-based medicine that has gained popularity recently, siRNA exhibits novel potential for the treatment of cancer. However, there are still many obstacles to overcome before clinical siRNA delivery devices can be developed. In this review, we discuss prospective targets for siRNA drug design, explain siRNA drug properties and benefits, and give an overview of the current clinical siRNA therapeutics for the treatment of cancer. Additionally, we introduce the siRNA chemical modifications and delivery systems that are clinically sophisticated and classify bioresponsive materials for siRNA release in a methodical manner. This review will serve as a reference for researchers in developing more precise and efficient targeted delivery systems, promoting ongoing advances in clinical applications.

Therapeutic potential and pharmacological significance of extracellular vesicles derived from traditional medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are the primary sources for the discovery of novel medicines and the basis of ethnopharmacological research. While existing studies mainly focus on the chemical compounds, there is little research about the functions of other contents in medicinal plants. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are functionally active, nanoscale, membrane-bound vesicles secreted by almost all eukaryotic cells. Intriguingly, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) also have been implicated to play an important role in therapeutic application. PDEVs were reported to have physical and chemical properties similar to mammalian EVs, which are rich in lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and pharmacologically active compounds. Besides these properties, PDEVs also exhibit unique advantages, especially intrinsic bioactivity, high stability, and easy absorption. PDEVs were found to be transferred into recipient cells and significantly affect their biological process involved in many diseases, such as inflammation and tumors. PDEVs also could offer unique morphological and compositional characteristics as natural nanocarriers by innately shuttling bioactive lipids, RNA, proteins, and other pharmacologically active substances. In addition, PDEVs could effectively encapsulate hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals, remain stable, and cross stringent biological barriers. Thus, this study focuses on the pharmacological action and mechanisms of PDEVs in therapeutic applications. We also systemically deal with facets of PDEVs, ranging from their isolation to composition, biological functions, and biotherapeutic roles. Efforts are also made to elucidate recent advances in re-engineering PDEVs applied as stable, effective, and non-immunogenic therapeutic applications to meet the ever-stringent demands. Considering its unique advantages, these studies not only provide relevant scientific evidence on therapeutic applications but could also replenish and inherit precious cultural heritage.

Aptamers as Potential Therapeutic Tools for Ovarian Cancer: Advancements and Challenges

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the most common lethal gynecologic cause of death in women worldwide, with a high mortality rate and increasing incidence. Despite advancements in the treatment, most OC patients still die from their disease due to late-stage diagnosis, the lack of effective diagnostic methods, and relapses. Aptamers, synthetic, short single-stranded oligonucleotides, have emerged as promising anticancer therapeutics. Their ability to selectively bind to target molecules, including cancer-related proteins and receptors, has revolutionized drug discovery and biomarker identification. Aptamers offer unique insights into the molecular pathways involved in cancer development and progression. Moreover, they show immense potential as drug delivery systems, enabling targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to cancer cells while minimizing off-target effects and reducing systemic toxicity. In the context of OC, the integration of aptamers with non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) presents an opportunity for precise and efficient gene targeting. Additionally, the conjugation of aptamers with nanoparticles allows for accurate and targeted delivery of ncRNAs to specific cells, tissues, or organs. In this review, we will summarize the potential use and challenges associated with the use of aptamers alone or aptamer-ncRNA conjugates, nanoparticles, and multivalent aptamer-based therapeutics for the treatment of OC.

Computational design and validation of effective siRNAs to silence oncogenic KRAS

Oncogenic KRAS mutations drive cancer progression in lung, colon, breast, and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas. Apart from the current strategies, such as KRAS upstream inhibitors, downstream effector inhibitors, interaction inhibitors, cell cycle inhibitors, and direct KRAS inhibitors, against KRAS-mutated cancers, the therapeutic small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) represent a promising alternative strategy that directly binds with the target mRNA and inhibits protein translation via mRNA degradation. Here, in the present study, we utilized various in silico approaches to design potential siRNA candidates against KRAS mRNA. We have predicted nearly 17 siRNAs against the KRAS mRNA, and further through various criteria, such as U, R, and A rules, GC%, secondary structure formation, mRNA-siRNA duplex stability, Tm (Cp), Tm (Conc), and inhibition efficiency, they have been filtered into 4 potential siRNAs namely siRNA8, siRNA11, siRNA12, and siRNA17. Further, the molecular docking analysis revealed that the siRNA8, siRNA11, siRNA12, and siRNA17 showed higher negative binding energies, such as - 379.13 kcal/mol, - 360.19 kcal/mol, - 288.47 kcal/mol, and - 329.76 kcal/mol, toward the human Argonaute2 protein (hAgo2) respectively. In addition, the normal mode analysis of the hAgo2-siRNAs complexes indicates the structural changes and deformation of the hAgo2 protein upon the binding of siRNA molecules in the dynamic environment which suggests that these siRNAs could be effective. Finally, we conclude that these 4 siRNAs have therapeutic potential against KRAS mRNA and also have to be studied in vitro and in vivo to evaluate their specificity toward mutant KRAS (not degrading wild-type KRAS). Also, the current challenges in the use of siRNA therapeutics could be overcome by the emerging siRNA delivery methods, such as Antibody-siRNA conjugates (ARCs) and Gelatin-Antibody Delivery System (GADS), in the near future and these siRNAs could be employed as potential therapeutic agents against KRAS-mutated cancers.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03767-w.

Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Up-regulated Circular RNAs Which Mediate Efficacy in Preclinical In Vivo Models

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) ranges as number two with respect to the incidence of tumors and is associated with a dismal prognosis. The therapeutic efficacy of approved multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitors and checkpoint inhibitors is modest. Therefore, the identification of new therapeutic targets and entities is of paramount importance. We searched the literature for up-regulated circular RNAs (circRNAs) which mediate efficacy in preclinical in vivo models of HCC. Our search resulted in 14 circRNAs which up-regulate plasma membrane transmembrane receptors, while 5 circRNAs induced secreted proteins. Two circRNAs facilitated replication of Hepatitis B or C viruses. Three circRNAs up-regulated high mobility group proteins. Six circRNAs regulated components of the ubiquitin system. Seven circRNAs induced GTPases of the family of ras-associated binding proteins (RABs). Three circRNAs induced redox-related proteins, eight of them up-regulated metabolic enzymes and nine circRNAs induced signaling-related proteins. The identified circRNAs up-regulate the corresponding targets by sponging microRNAs. Identified circRNAs and their targets have to be validated by standard criteria of preclinical drug development. Identified targets can potentially be inhibited by small molecules or antibody-based moieties and circRNAs can be inhibited by small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs) or short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) for therapeutic purposes.

Simultaneous Delivery of Doxorubicin and EZH2-Targeting siRNA by Vortex Magnetic Nanorods Synergistically Improved Anti-Tumor Efficacy in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), one of the most aggressive types of breast cancer, currently lacks a targeted therapy and has a high clinical recurrence rate. The present study reports an engineered magnetic nanodrug based on Fe3 O4 vortex nanorods coated with a macrophage membrane loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) and Enhancer of zeste 2 polycomb repressive complex 2 subunit (EZH2) siRNA. This novel nanodrug displays excellent tissue penetration and preferential tumor accumulation. More importantly, it significantly increases tumor suppression compared to chemotherapy, suggesting the synergistic activity of the combination of doxorubicin and EZH2-inhibition. Importantly, owing to tumor-targeted delivery, nanomedicine shows an excellent safety profile after systemic delivery, unlike conventional chemotherapy. In summary, chemotherapy and gene therapy are combined into a novel magnetic nanodrug carrying doxorubicin and EZH2 siRNA, which shows promising clinical application potential in TNBC therapy.

Polyethylenimine-based iron oxide nanoparticles enhance cisplatin toxicity in ovarian cancer cells in the presence of a static magnetic field

Background

Drug resistance in cancer cells is a major concern in chemotherapy. Cisplatin (CIS) is one of the most effective chemotherapeutics for ovarian cancer. Here, we investigated an experimental approach to increase CIS cytotoxicity and overcome cell resistance using nanoparticle-based combination treatments.

Methods

Polyethylenimine (PEI)-based magnetic iron oxide nanocomplexes were used for drug delivery in genetically matched CIS-resistant (A2780/CP) and -sensitive (A2780) ovarian cancer cells in the presence of a 20 mT static magnetic field. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) were synthesized and bonded to PEI cationic polymers to form binary complexes (PM). The binding of CIS to the PM binary complexes resulted in the formation of ternary complexes PM/C (PEI-MNP/CIS) and PMC (PEI-MNP-CIS).

Results

CIS cytotoxicity increased at different concentrations of CIS and PEI in all binary and ternary delivery systems over time. Additionally, CIS induced cell cycle arrest in the S and G2/M phases and reactive oxygen species production in both cell lines. Ternary complexes were more effective than binary complexes at promoting apoptosis in the treated cells.

Conclusion

PEI-based magnetic nanocomplexes can be considered novel carriers for increasing CIS cytotoxicity and likely overcoming drug resistance of ovarian cancer cells.

Emerging role of miR-320a in lung cancer: a comprehensive review

A specialized biomarker(s) for lung cancer is imperative owing to its high mortality. Continuing our earlier work demonstrating the role of miR-320a as a tumor suppressor, here we discuss the most recent updates on miR-320a in lung cancer pathogenesis. We found that miR-320a modulates levels of diverse cancer-associated molecules and signaling pathways, and is also involved in modulating the immune microenvironment of lung cancer during its pathogenesis. We also discuss how miR-320a encapsulated in exosomes inhibits invasive phenotypes of lung cancer. Therefore, based on the multimodal role of miR-320a in lung cancer development and progression, we believe that miR-320a may be utilized as a potential diagnostic/prognostic marker and therapeutic target for lung cancer patients.

The emerging potential of siRNA nanotherapeutics in treatment of arthritis

RNA interference (RNAi) using small interfering RNA (siRNA) has shown potential as a therapeutic option for the treatment of arthritis by silencing specific genes. However, siRNA delivery faces several challenges, including stability, targeting, off-target effects, endosomal escape, immune response activation, intravascular degradation, and renal clearance. A variety of nanotherapeutics like lipidic nanoparticles, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and solid lipid nanoparticles have been developed to improve siRNA cellular uptake, protect it from degradation, and enhance its therapeutic efficacy. Researchers are also investigating chemical modifications and bioconjugation to reduce its immunogenicity. This review discusses the potential of siRNA nanotherapeutics as a therapeutic option for various immune-mediated diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, etc. siRNA nanotherapeutics have shown an upsurge of interest and the future looks promising for such interdisciplinary approach-based modalities that combine the principles of molecular biology, nanotechnology, and formulation sciences.

A Photosensitizer-Loaded Polydopamine Nanomedicine Agent for Synergistic Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) have emerged as promising non-invasive approaches to cancer treatment. However, the development of multifunctional nanomedicines is necessary to enhance these approaches' effectiveness and safety. In this study, we investigated a polydopamine-based nanoparticle (PDA-ZnPc+ Nps) loaded with the efficient photosensitizer ZnPc(4TAP)12+ (ZnPc+) through in vitro and in vivo experiments to achieve synergistic PDT and PTT. Our results demonstrated that PDA-ZnPc+ Nps exhibited remarkable efficacy due to its ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), induce photothermal effects, and promote apoptosis in cancer cells. Moreover, in both MCF-7 cells and MCF-7 tumor-bearing mice, the combined PDT/PTT treatment with PDA-ZnPc+ Nps led to synergistic effects. Subcellular localization analysis revealed a high accumulation of ZnPc+ in the cytoplasm of cancer cells, resulting in cellular disruption and vacuolation following synergistic PDT/PTT. Furthermore, PDA-ZnPc+ Nps exhibited significant antitumor effects without causing evident systemic damage in vivo, enabling the use of lower doses of photosensitizer and ensuring safer treatment. Our study not only highlights the potential of PDA-ZnPc+ Nps as a dual-functional anticancer agent combining PDA and PTT but also offers a strategy for mitigating the side effects associated with clinical photosensitizers, particularly dark toxicity.