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Filice S, Scuderi V, Scalese S. Sulfonated Pentablock Copolymer (Nexar TM) for Water Remediation and Other Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:2009. [PMID: 39065326 PMCID: PMC11280590 DOI: 10.3390/polym16142009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Revised: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This review focuses on the use of a sulfonated pentablock copolymer commercialized as NexarTM in water purification applications. The properties and the use of sulfonated copolymers, in general, and of NexarTM, in particular, are described within a brief reference focusing on the problem of different water contaminants, purification technologies, and the use of nanomaterials and nanocomposites for water treatment. In addition to desalination and pervaporation processes, adsorption and photocatalytic processes are also considered here. The reported results confirm the possibility of using NexarTM as a matrix for embedded nanoparticles, exploiting their performance in adsorption and photocatalytic processes and preventing their dispersion in the environment. Furthermore, the reported antimicrobial and antibiofouling properties of NexarTM make it a promising material for achieving active coatings that are able to enhance commercial filter lifetime and performance. The coated filters show selective and efficient removal of cationic contaminants in filtration processes, which is not observed with a bare commercial filter. The UV surface treatment and/or the addition of nanostructures such as graphene oxide (GO) flakes confer NexarTM with coating additional functionalities and activity. Finally, other application fields of this polymer are reported, i.e., energy and/or gas separation, suggesting its possible use as an efficient and economical alternative to the more well-known Nafion polymer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Filice
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, 95121 Catania, Italy;
| | | | - Silvia Scalese
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, 95121 Catania, Italy;
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Capuano GE, Corso D, Farina R, Pezzotti Escobar G, Screpis GA, Coniglio MA, Libertino S. Miniaturizable Chemiluminescence System for ATP Detection in Water. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:3921. [PMID: 38931704 PMCID: PMC11207618 DOI: 10.3390/s24123921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
We present the design, fabrication, and testing of a low-cost, miniaturized detection system that utilizes chemiluminescence to measure the presence of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy unit in biological systems, in water samples. The ATP-luciferin chemiluminescent solution was faced to a silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) for highly sensitive real-time detection. This system can detect ATP concentrations as low as 0.2 nM, with a sensitivity of 79.5 A/M. Additionally, it offers rapid response times and can measure the characteristic time required for reactant diffusion and mixing within the reaction volume, determined to be 0.3 ± 0.1 s. This corresponds to a diffusion velocity of approximately 44 ± 14 mm2/s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe E. Capuano
- Istituto per la Microeletttronica e Microsistemi—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, VIII Strada Z.I., 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (G.E.C.); (R.F.); (S.L.)
| | - Domenico Corso
- Istituto per la Microeletttronica e Microsistemi—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, VIII Strada Z.I., 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (G.E.C.); (R.F.); (S.L.)
| | - Roberta Farina
- Istituto per la Microeletttronica e Microsistemi—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, VIII Strada Z.I., 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (G.E.C.); (R.F.); (S.L.)
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Gianni Pezzotti Escobar
- URT “LabSens of Beyond Nano” of the Department of Physical Sciences and Technologies of Matter, National Research Council (CNR-DSFTM-ME), Viale Ferdinando Stagno D’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy;
| | - Giuseppe A. Screpis
- Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Anna Coniglio
- Istituto per la Microeletttronica e Microsistemi—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, VIII Strada Z.I., 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (G.E.C.); (R.F.); (S.L.)
- Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Sebania Libertino
- Istituto per la Microeletttronica e Microsistemi—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, VIII Strada Z.I., 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (G.E.C.); (R.F.); (S.L.)
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Parcheta M, Sobiesiak M. Preparation and Functionalization of Polymers with Antibacterial Properties-Review of the Recent Developments. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:4411. [PMID: 37374596 PMCID: PMC10304131 DOI: 10.3390/ma16124411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in our environment is a matter of growing concern. Consumption of contaminated drinking water or contaminated fruit or vegetables can provoke ailments and even diseases, mainly in the digestive system. In this work, we present the latest data on the ability to remove bacteria from potable water and wastewater. The article discusses the mechanisms of the antibacterial activity of polymers, consisting of the electrostatic interaction between bacterial cells and the surface of natural and synthetic polymers functionalized with metal cations (polydopamine modified with silver nanoparticles, starch modified with quaternary ammonium or halogenated benzene). The synergistic effect of polymers (N-alkylaminated chitosan, silver doped polyoxometalate, modified poly(aspartic acid)) with antibiotics has also been described, allowing for precise targeting of drugs to infected cells as a preventive measure against the excessive spread of antibiotics, leading to drug resistance among bacteria. Cationic polymers, polymers obtained from essential oils (EOs), or natural polymers modified with organic acids are promising materials in the removal of harmful bacteria. Antimicrobial polymers are successfully used as biocides due to their acceptable toxicity, low production costs, chemical stability, and high adsorption capacity thanks to multi-point attachment to microorganisms. New achievements in the field of polymer surface modification in order to impart antimicrobial properties were summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Parcheta
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, Maria Curie-Skłodowskiej sq 3., 20 031 Lublin, Poland
| | - Magdalena Sobiesiak
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, Maria Curie-Skłodowskiej sq 3., 20 031 Lublin, Poland
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4
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Guo L, Xu J, Du B. Self-assembly of ABCBA Linear Pentablock Terpolymers. POLYM REV 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/15583724.2023.2178008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Motor Vehicle Biofuel Technology, Department of Polymer Science & Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Junting Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Motor Vehicle Biofuel Technology, Department of Polymer Science & Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Binyang Du
- State Key Laboratory of Motor Vehicle Biofuel Technology, Department of Polymer Science & Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Filice S, Scuderi V, Libertino S, Zimbone M, Galati C, Spinella N, Gradon L, Falqui L, Scalese S. Sulfonated Pentablock Copolymer Coating of Polypropylene Filters for Dye and Metal Ions Effective Removal by Integrated Adsorption and Filtration Process. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911777. [PMID: 36233077 PMCID: PMC9570310 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this work, we coated polypropylene (PP) fibrous filters with sulfonated pentablock copolymer (s-PBC) layers and tested them for the removal of cationic organic dyes, such as methylene blue (MB), and heavy metal ions (Fe3+ and Co2+) from water by adsorption and filtration experiments. Some of the coated filters were irradiated by UV light before being exposed to contaminated water and then were tested with unirradiated filters in the same adsorption and filtration experiments. Polymer-coated filters showed high efficiency in removing MB from an aqueous solution in both absorption and filtration processes, with 90% and 80% removal, respectively. On the other hand, for heavy metal ions (Fe3+ and Co2+), the coated filters showed a better removal performance in the filtration process than for the adsorption one. In fact, in the adsorption process, controlled interaction times allow the ionic species to interact with the surface of the filters leading to the formation and release of new species in solution. During filtration, the ionic species are easily trapped in the filters, in particular by UV modified filters, and we observed for Fe3+ ions a total removal (>99%) in a single filtration process and for Co2+ ions a larger removal with respect to the untreated filter. The mechanisms involved in the removal of the contaminants processes were investigated by characterizing the filters before and after use by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) combined with energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Filice
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, 95121 Catania, Italy
| | - Viviana Scuderi
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, 95121 Catania, Italy
- Correspondence: (V.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Sebania Libertino
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, 95121 Catania, Italy
| | - Massimo Zimbone
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi (CNR-IMM), Via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Clelia Galati
- STMicroelectronics Stradale Primosole 50, 95121 Catania, Italy
| | | | - Leon Gradon
- Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Warynskiego 1, 00-645 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Luciano Falqui
- Plastica Alfa SpA, Zona Industriale, C.da S.M.Poggiarelli, 95041 Caltagirone (CT), Italy
| | - Silvia Scalese
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, 95121 Catania, Italy
- Correspondence: (V.S.); (S.S.)
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Filice S, Sciuto EL, Scalese S, Faro G, Libertino S, Corso D, Timpanaro RM, Laganà P, Coniglio MA. Innovative Antibiofilm Smart Surface against Legionella for Water Systems. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10050870. [PMID: 35630315 PMCID: PMC9144790 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10050870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionella pneumophila contamination of water systems is a crucial issue for public health. The pathogen is able to persist in water as free-living planktonic bacteria or to grow within biofilms that adhere to and clog filters and pipes in a water system, reducing its lifespan and, in the case of hospital buildings, increasing the risk of nosocomial infections. The implementation of water management is considered to be the main prevention measure and can be achieved from the optimization of water system architecture, notably introducing new materials and strategies to contrast Legionella biofilm proliferation and so prolong the water system functionality. In this research, we propose a new smart surface against L. pneumophila biofilm formation. This is based on an innovative type of coating consisting of a sulfonated pentablock copolymer (s-PBC, commercially named Nexar™) deposited on top of a polypropylene (PP) coupon in a sandwich filter model. The covering of PP with s-PBC results in a more hydrophilic, acid, and negatively charged surface that induces microbial physiological inhibition thereby preventing adhesion and/or proliferation attempts of L. pneumophila prior to the biofilm formation. The antibiofilm property has been investigated by a Zone of Inhibition test and an in vitro biofilm formation analysis. Filtration tests have been performed as representative of possible applications for s-PBC coating. Results are reported and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Filice
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.); (M.A.C.)
| | - Emanuele Luigi Sciuto
- Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Policlinico “G. Rodolico-San Marco”, Via S. Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Silvia Scalese
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.); (M.A.C.)
| | - Giuseppina Faro
- Azienda Sanitaria Provinciale di Catania, Via S. Maria La Grande 5, 95124 Catania, Italy;
| | - Sebania Libertino
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.); (M.A.C.)
| | - Domenico Corso
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.); (M.A.C.)
| | - Rosario Manuel Timpanaro
- Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Policlinico “G. Rodolico-San Marco”, Via S. Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy;
| | - Pasqualina Laganà
- Regional Reference Laboratory of Clinical and Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis, Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, Torre Biologica 3p, AOU ‘G. Martino’, University of Messina, Via C. Valeria, S.N.C., 98125 Messina, Italy;
| | - Maria Anna Coniglio
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.); (M.A.C.)
- Regional Reference Laboratory of Clinical and Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, Via Sofia 87, 95123 Catania, Italy
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Xue R, Zhang X, Wei Y, Zhao Z, Liu H, Yang F, Yin L, Song Z, Luan S, Tang H. A sulfonate-based polypeptide toward infection-resistant coatings. Biomater Sci 2021; 9:6425-6433. [PMID: 34582529 DOI: 10.1039/d1bm00951f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Multifunctional coatings have gained significant attention for their promising potential to address the issue of medical device-related infections. However, they usually have multiple components in one layer which decreases the density of functional groups on surfaces and hence reduces the biological properties. Herein, we report a mono-component and sulfonate-based anionic polypeptide coating with on-demand antibacterial activity, antifouling property, and biocompatibility. The anionic polypeptide was prepared by ring-opening polymerization of L-cysteine-based N-carboxyanhydride (NCA) with allyl groups and a subsequent thiol-ene reaction to incorporate the sulfonate pendants. It adopted a 17.1-19.5% β-sheet conformation and self-assembled into a spherical nanoparticle. The polypeptide coating showed excellent in vitro antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive (i.e., S. aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (i.e., E. coli) with >99% killing efficacy after acidic solution treatment and prominent antifouling property and biocompatibility after weak base treatment. An in vivo study revealed that the sulfonate-based polypeptide-coated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) exhibited good anti-infection property and histocompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruizhong Xue
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science & Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Xu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, China.
| | - Yuansong Wei
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science & Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Ziyin Zhao
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science & Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Hao Liu
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science & Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Fangping Yang
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science & Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Lichen Yin
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science & Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Ziyuan Song
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science & Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Shifang Luan
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, China.
| | - Haoyu Tang
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science & Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
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Filice S, Bongiorno C, Libertino S, Compagnini G, Gradon L, Iannazzo D, La Magna A, Scalese S. Structural Characterization and Adsorption Properties of Dunino Raw Halloysite Mineral for Dye Removal from Water. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14133676. [PMID: 34279246 PMCID: PMC8269871 DOI: 10.3390/ma14133676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In this work, raw halloysite mineral from Dunino (Poland) has been characterized and tested as an efficient and low-cost adsorbent for dye removal from water. The morphology and structure of this clay were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and the chemical composition was evaluated by means of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). The results showed that it is made up of both platy and tubular structures, mainly composed of Si, Al, and O. Iron oxide particles covering the platy structures were also observed. The surface charge of halloysite was measured by z-potential measurements and by the evaluation of the point of zero charge. The clay was tested as an adsorbent for the removal of positively and negatively charged dye molecules, i.e., methylene blue (MB) and methyl orange (MO), both separately and in a mixed-dye solution. Halloysite showed the ability to efficiently and selectively remove MB molecules by adsorption, both in a single-dye solution and in a mixed one. The adsorption of positive dyes on the clay surface mainly occurred through ion exchange at negatively charged sites on its surface. The possibility of regenerating the clay for further dye removal processes is also shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Filice
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, I-95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (C.B.); (S.L.); (A.L.M.)
| | - Corrado Bongiorno
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, I-95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (C.B.); (S.L.); (A.L.M.)
| | - Sebania Libertino
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, I-95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (C.B.); (S.L.); (A.L.M.)
| | - Giuseppe Compagnini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università di Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy;
| | - Leon Gradon
- Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Warynskiego 1, 00-645 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Daniela Iannazzo
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università degli Studi di Messina, Contrada di Dio, I-98166 Messina, Italy;
| | - Antonino La Magna
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, I-95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (C.B.); (S.L.); (A.L.M.)
| | - Silvia Scalese
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada n.5, I-95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (C.B.); (S.L.); (A.L.M.)
- Correspondence:
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Sciuto EL, Laganà P, Filice S, Scalese S, Libertino S, Corso D, Faro G, Coniglio MA. Environmental Management of Legionella in Domestic Water Systems: Consolidated and Innovative Approaches for Disinfection Methods and Risk Assessment. Microorganisms 2021; 9:577. [PMID: 33799845 PMCID: PMC8001549 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9030577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionella is able to remain in water as free-living planktonic bacteria or to grow within biofilms that adhere to the pipes. It is also able to enter amoebas or to switch into a viable but not culturable (VBNC) state, which contributes to its resistance to harsh conditions and hinders its detection in water. Factors regulating Legionella growth, such as environmental conditions, type and concentration of available organic and inorganic nutrients, presence of protozoa, spatial location of microorganisms, metal plumbing components, and associated corrosion products are important for Legionella survival and growth. Finally, water treatment and distribution conditions may affect each of these factors. A deeper comprehension of Legionella interactions in water distribution systems with the environmental conditions is needed for better control of the colonization. To this purpose, the implementation of water management plans is the main prevention measure against Legionella. A water management program requires coordination among building managers, health care providers, and Public Health professionals. The review reports a comprehensive view of the state of the art and the promising perspectives of both monitoring and disinfection methods against Legionella in water, focusing on the main current challenges concerning the Public Health sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Luigi Sciuto
- Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Policlinico “G. Rodolico-San Marco”, Via Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy;
| | - Pasqualina Laganà
- Regional Reference Laboratory of Clinical and Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis, Messina, Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, Torre Biologica 3p, AOU ‘G. Martino, Via C. Valeria, s.n.c., 98125 Messina, Italy;
| | - Simona Filice
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi–Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.)
| | - Silvia Scalese
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi–Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.)
| | - Sebania Libertino
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi–Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.)
| | - Domenico Corso
- Istituto per la Microelettronica e Microsistemi–Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IMM), Ottava Strada 5, 95121 Catania, Italy; (S.F.); (S.S.); (S.L.); (D.C.)
| | - Giuseppina Faro
- Azienda Sanitaria Provinciale di Catania, Via S. Maria La Grande 5, 95124 Catania, Italy;
| | - Maria Anna Coniglio
- Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Policlinico “G. Rodolico-San Marco”, Via Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy;
- Regional Reference Laboratory of Clinical and Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis, Catania, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, Via Sofia 87, 95123 Catania, Italy
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