Panax quinquefolius (North American Ginseng) Polysaccharides as Immunomodulators: Current Research Status and Future Directions

Exotic medicinal plants from the Silk Road promote the diversification of traditional Chinese medicines

BACKGROUND

As a political, economic, and cultural exchange channel between ancient China and countries in Asia, Europe, and Africa, the Silk Road has promoted political, trade, and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in Chinese history and also promoted the development of traditional Chinese medicine.

METHODS

This article summarizes the introduction of medicinal materials from the Han to Qing Dynasties, spanning approximately 2000 years.

RESULTS

A total of 235 types of medicinal plant materials were imported. An analysis of 178 medicinal herbs of known origin, belonging to 72 families revealed their effectiveness in treating 20 diseases. The maximum number of medicinal herbs used to treat gastrointestinal and digestive disorders (GAS) was 122. The applications and origin of exotic medicinal materials, including draconis sanguis and olibanum have changed during the development of the Silk Road. Imported medicinal materials are affected by five factors, including local demand, adaptability, cultural exchange, scarcity, and medical theory. Five modes for introducing medicinal materials include the onshore Silk Road, the maritime Silk Road, diplomatic envoys and gifts, overseas Chinese, cultural exchange, and medical integration. The application of exotic medicinal materials expands the resources and application fields of traditional Chinese medicine, enriching the theory of traditional Chinese medicine.

CONCLUSION

Traditional Chinese medicinal compounds introduced to China through the ancient Silk Road not only promoted their integration into foreign medicine but also had long-lasting impacts to date and over a wide range, thereby considerably affecting the pharmaceutical and general healthcare industries.

Expression, purification, characterization and crystallization of Panax quinquefolius ginsenoside glycosyltransferase Pq3-O-UGT2

Pq3-O-UGT2, derived from Panax quinquefolius, functions as a ginsenoside glucosyltransferase, utilizing UDP-glucose (UDPG) as the sugar donor to catalyze the glycosylation of Rh2 and F2. An essential step in comprehending its catalytic mechanism involves structural analysis. In preparation for structural analysis, we expressed Pq3-O-UGT2 in the Escherichia coli (E. coli) strain Rosetta (DE3). The recombinant Pq3-O-UGT2 was purified through Ni-NTA affinity purification, a two-step ion exchange chromatography, and subsequently size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). Notably, the purified Pq3-O-UGT2 showed substantial activity toward Rh2 and F2, catalyzing the formation of Rg3 and Rd, respectively. This activity was discernible within a pH range of 4.0-9.0 and temperature range of 30-55 °C, with optimal conditions observed at pH 7.0-8.0 and 37 °C. The catalytic efficiency of Pq3-O-UGT2 toward Rh2 and F2 was 31.43 s-1 mΜ-1 and 169.31 s-1 mΜ-1, respectively. We further crystalized Pq3-O-UGT2 in both its apo form and co-crystalized forms with UDPG, Rh2 and F2, respectively. High-quality crystals were obtained and X-ray diffraction data was collected for all co-crystalized samples. Analysis of the diffraction data revealed that the crystal of Pq3-O-UGT2 co-crystalized with UDP-Glc belonged to space group P1, while the other two crystals belonged to space group P212121. Together, this study has laid a robust foundation for subsequent structural analysis of Pq3-O-UGT2.

Research on the dentification of Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium using catalysed hairpin assembly technology

INTRODUCTION

Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium are traditional Chinese herb medicines and similar in morphology and some chemical components but differ in drug properties, so they cannot be mixed. However, the processed products of them are often sold in the form of slices, powder, and capsules, which are difficult to identify by traditional morphological methods. Furthermore, an accurate evaluation of P. ginseng, P. quinquefolium and the processed products have not been conducted.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to establish a catalysed hairpin assembly (CHA) identification method for authenticating products made from P. ginseng and P. quinquefolium based on single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) differences.

METHOD

By analysing the differences of SNP in internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) in P. ginseng and P. quinquefolium to design CHA-specific hairpins. Establish a sensitive and efficient CHA method that can identify P. ginseng and P. quinquefolium, use the sequencing technology to verify the accuracy of this method in identifying Panax products, and compare this method with high-resolution melting (HRM).

RESULTS

The reaction conditions of CHA were as follows: the ratio of forward and reverse primers, 20:1; hairpin concentration, 5 ng/μL. Compared with capillary electrophoresis, this method had good specificity and the limit of detection was 0.5 ng/μL. The result of Panax product identification with CHA method were coincidence with that of the sequencing method; the positive rate of CHA reaction was 100%.

CONCLUSION

This research presents an effective identification method for authenticating P. ginseng and P. quinquefolium products, which is helpful to improve the quality of Panax products.

A Qualitative Analysis of Cultured Adventitious Ginseng Root's Chemical Composition and Immunomodulatory Effects

The cultivation of ginseng in fields is time-consuming and labor-intensive. Thus, culturing adventitious ginseng root in vitro constitutes an effective approach to accumulating ginsenosides. In this study, we employed UPLC-QTOF-MS to analyze the composition of the cultured adventitious root (cAR) of ginseng, identifying 60 chemical ingredients. We also investigated the immunomodulatory effect of cAR extract using various mouse models. The results demonstrated that the cAR extract showed significant activity in enhancing the immune response in mice. The mechanism underlying the immunomodulatory effect of cAR was analyzed through network pharmacology analysis, revealing potential 'key protein targets', namely TNF, AKT1, IL-6, VEGFA, and IL-1β, affected by potential 'key components', namely the ginsenosides PPT, F1, Rh2, CK, and 20(S)-Rg3. The signaling pathways PI3K-Akt, AGE-RAGE, and MAPK may play a vital role in this process.

Inflammation and Oxidative Stress Induced by Obesity, Gestational Diabetes, and Preeclampsia in Pregnancy: Role of High-Density Lipoproteins as Vectors for Bioactive Compounds

Inflammation and oxidative stress are essential components in a myriad of pathogenic entities that lead to metabolic and chronic diseases. Moreover, inflammation in its different phases is necessary for the initiation and maintenance of a healthy pregnancy. Therefore, an equilibrium between a necessary/pathologic level of inflammation and oxidative stress during pregnancy is needed to avoid disease development. High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are important for a healthy pregnancy and a good neonatal outcome. Their role in fetal development during challenging situations is vital for maintaining the equilibrium. However, in certain conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and other cardiovascular diseases, it has been observed that HDL loses its protective properties, becoming dysfunctional. Bioactive compounds have been widely studied as mediators of inflammation and oxidative stress in different diseases, but their mechanisms of action are still unknown. Nonetheless, these agents, which are obtained from functional foods, increase the concentration of HDL, TRC, and antioxidant activity. Therefore, this review first summarizes several mechanisms of HDL participation in the equilibrium between inflammation and oxidative stress. Second, it gives an insight into how HDL may act as a vector for bioactive compounds. Third, it describes the relationships between the inflammation process in pregnancy and HDL activity. Consequently, different databases were used, including MEDLINE, PubMed, and Scopus, where scientific articles published in the English language up to 2023 were identified.

Regulatory Effects of Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and American ginseng Extract Formulation on Gut Microbiota and Fecal Metabolomics in Mice

The bioactivities of Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and American ginseng have been extensively studied and documented. However, the effects of their complexes on the structural properties of intestinal microbiota and fecal metabolism remain unclear. Therefore, this paper aims to present a preliminary study to shed light on this aspect. In this study, an immunocompromised mouse model was induced using cyclophosphamide, and Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and American ginseng extract formulation (referred to as JGGA) were administered via gavage to investigate their modulatory effects on gut microbiota and fecal metabolism in mice. The effects of JGGA on immune enhancement were explored using serum test kits, hematoxylin-eosin staining, 16SrDNA high-throughput sequencing, and UHPLC-QE-MS metabolomics. The findings revealed potential mechanisms underlying the immune-enhancing effects of JGGA. Specifically, JGGA administration resulted in an improved body weight, thymic index, splenic index, carbon scavenging ability, hypersensitivity, and cellular inflammatory factor expression levels in mice. Further analysis demonstrated that JGGA reduced the abundance of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria, while increasing the abundance of Bacteroidetes. Additionally, JGGA modulated the levels of 30 fecal metabolites. These results suggest that the immune enhancement observed with JGGA may be attributed to the targeted modulation of gut microbiota and fecal metabolism, thus promoting increased immunity in the body.

Structural characterization and anti-inflammatory activity of neutral polysaccharides from American ginseng

American ginseng, a precious classic herbal medicine, is used extensively in China for life prolongation purpose. This study aimed to elucidate the structure and anti-inflammatory activity of a neutral polysaccharide isolated from American ginseng (AGP-A). Nuclear magnetic resonance in conjunction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were used to analyze AGP-A's structure, whereas Raw264.7 cell and zebrafish models were employed to assess its anti-inflammatory activity. According to the results, AGP-A has a molecular weight of 5561 Da and is primarily consisted of glucose. Additionally, linear α-(1 → 4)-glucans with α-D-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp-(1→ residues linked to the backbone at C-6 formed the backbone of AGP-A. Furthermore, AGP-A significantly decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α) in Raw264.7 cell model. AGP-A in zebrafish model significantly lower the massive recruitment of neutrophils to the neuromast of the caudal lateral line. Inflammation may be relieved by the AGP-A component in American ginseng based on these results. In conclusion, our study shows the structural characterization, remarkable anti-inflammatory properties of AGP-A and its potential curative efficacy as a safe, valid natural anti-inflammatory medicine.

New perspective on the immunomodulatory activity of ginsenosides: Focus on effective therapies for post-COVID-19

More than 700 million confirmed cases of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) have been reported globally, and 10-60% of patients are expected to exhibit "post-COVID-19 symptoms," which will continue to affect human life and health. In the absence of safer, more specific drugs, current multiple immunotherapies have failed to achieve satisfactory efficacy. Ginseng, a traditional Chinese medicine, is often used as an immunomodulator and has been used in COVID-19 treatment as a tonic to increase blood oxygen saturation. Ginsenosides are the main active components of ginseng. In this review, we summarize the multiple ways in which ginsenosides affect post-COVID-19 symptoms, including inhibition of lipopolysaccharide, tumor necrosis factor signaling, modulation of chemokine receptors and inflammasome activation, induction of macrophage polarization, effects on Toll-like receptors, nuclear factor kappa-B, the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, lymphocytes, intestinal flora, and epigenetic regulation. Ginsenosides affect virus-mediated tissue damage, local or systemic inflammation, immune modulation, and other links, thus alleviating respiratory and pulmonary symptoms, reducing the cardiac burden, protecting the nervous system, and providing new ideas for the rehabilitation of patients with post-COVID-19 symptoms. Furthermore, we analyzed its role in strengthening body resistance to eliminate pathogenic factors from the perspective of ginseng-epidemic disease and highlighted the challenges in clinical applications. However, the benefit of ginsenosides in modulating organismal imbalance post-COVID-19 needs to be further evaluated to better validate the pharmacological mechanisms associated with their traditional efficacy and to determine their role in individualized therapy.

American Ginseng for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: A Review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent degenerative condition that is increasingly affecting populations globally. American ginseng (AG) has anti-AD bioactivity, and ginsenosides, as the main active components of AG, have shown strong anti-AD effects in both in vitro and in vivo studies. It has been reported that ginsenosides can inhibit amyloid β-protein (Aβ) production and deposition, tau phosphorylation, apoptosis and cytotoxicity, as well as possess anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, thus suppressing the progression of AD. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the pathogenesis of AD, the potential anti-AD effects of ginsenosides found in AG, and the underlying molecular mechanisms associated with these effects. Additionally, we will discuss the potential use of AG in the treatment of AD, and how ginsenosides in AG may exert more potent anti-AD effects in vivo may be a direction for further research.

Immunomodulatory, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anti-Cancer Properties of Ginseng: A Pharmacological Update

Ginseng, a medicinal plant of the genus Panax, boasts a rich historical record of usage that dates back to the Paleolithic period. This botanical is extensively acknowledged and consumed in Eastern countries for its therapeutic properties, and, in Western countries, it is becoming increasingly popular as a remedy for fatigue and asthenia. This review provides an update on current research pertaining to ginseng and its isolated compounds, namely, ginsenosides and polysaccharides. The primary focus is on three crucial pharmacological activities, namely, immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects. The review encompasses studies on both isolated compounds and various ginseng extracts obtained from the root, leaves, and berries.

Processing technologies, phytochemistry, bioactivities and applications of black ginseng-a novel manufactured ginseng product: A comprehensive review

Black ginseng is a novel manufactured ginseng product, and the application of black ginseng products in market is increasing in recent years. Black ginseng is prepared by steaming and fermentation, but not as mature as processing red ginseng. Therefore, complete proposals for preparation techniques are firstly presented. Additionally, there are also abundant chemical components in black ginseng, including ginsenosides, polysaccharides, amino acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, etc. Among them, ginsenosides, polysaccharides and phenolic compounds are the main ingredients, making health benefits of black ginseng stronger than other ginseng products. Therefore, black ginseng as a functional food has come to the market in various forms, such as candies, tea, porridge, soup, etc. The improvement in nutrition, flavor, and safety has exhibited a broad prospect for black ginseng products in food industry. Accordingly, preparation technologies, phytochemistry, health benefits and application of black ginseng are comprehensively evaluated.

The antioxidant effects of hedysarum polybotrys polysaccharide in extending lifespan and ameliorating aging-related diseases in Drosophila melanogaster

Hedysarum polybotrys polysaccharide (HPS) is one of the main active ingredients of Hedysarum with many health-beneficial properties, including antioxidant property, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor. However, the effect of HPS on anti-aging is still unclear. This study was to explore the protective function of HPS on aging and age-related diseases using Drosophila melanogaster. The results demonstrated that HPS supplementation promoted hatchability and prolonged lifespan by enhancing the antioxidative capacity. Administraction of HPS ameliorated age-related symptoms such as imbalanced intestinal homeostasis, sleep disturbances, and beta-amyloid (Aβ) induced Alzheimer's disease (AD) in flies, but did not modulate neurobehavioral deficits in the AD model of tauopathy and the Parkinson's disease (PD) model of Pink1 mutation. Overall, this study reveals that HPS has strong potential in the prevention of aging and age-related diseases, and provided a new candidate for the development of anti-aging drugs.

Inulin-type fructans obtained from Atractylodis Macrocephalae by water/alkali extraction and immunoregulatory evaluation

Two homogenous polysaccharides extracted from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. were investigated by water extraction (AMP-F_W) and alkali solution extraction (AMP-F_A) after purification by anion exchange column and size exclusion chromatography. The molecular weight of AMP-F_W and AMP-F_A were 2874 Da and 3438 Da, respectively, estimated by high performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC). The monosaccharide compositions of AMP-F_W and AMP-F_A were glucose and fructose at a molar ratio of 0.11:0.89 determined by high performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC). The functional groups, glycosidic linkages and the chemical structure were characterized by FT-IR, GC-MS and NMR, which comprehensively indicated a similar inulin-type fructan structure of the two polysaccharides from A. macrocephala. However, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results showed different microstructures that irregular lamellar shape for the AMP-F_W and spheroid shape for the AMP-F_A. The further studies on immunomodulation showed that AMP-F_W at 50 μg/mL could significantly (P < 0.05) stimulate RAW 264.7 cells by enhancing the mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-1β, which had a relative high immunomodulatory potential when compared to AMP-F_A. Their activation on different toll-like receptors (TLR) also indicated their different roles in the immunoregulation. Overall, these findings reported here will serve as the basis for further structure-activity relationship studies.

Identification of key pharmacodynamic markers of American ginseng against heart failure based on metabolomics and zebrafish model

Background: American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L., AG) is a traditional Chinese medicine with multiple cardiovascular protective properties. Many bioactive components have been discovered in AG over these years. However, the understanding of these key pharmacodynamic components of activity against heart failure is insufficient.

Methods: A heart failure model was established using AB line wild-type zebrafish (Danio rerio) to evaluate the anti-heart failure activity of AG. Untargeted metabolomics analysis based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole electrostatic field orbitrap-mass spectrometry technology (UHPLC-QE-Orbitrap-MS) was performed to screen differential components from AG samples. The potential active components were verified using the zebrafish model. Simultaneously, network pharmacology and molecular docking techniques were used to predict the possible mechanism. Finally, the key targets of six key pharmacodynamic components were verified in zebrafish using quantitative real-time-polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR) techniques.

Results: The heart failure model was successfully established in 48 h of post-fertilization (hpf) zebrafish larvae by treating with verapamil hydrochloride. The zebrafish assay showed that the anti-heart failure effects of AG varied with producing regions. The result of the herbal metabolomic analysis based on UHPLC-QE-Orbitrap-MS indicated that ginsenoside Rg3, ginsenoside Rg5, ginsenoside Rg6, malic acid, quinic acid, L-argininosuccinic acid, 3-methyl-3-butenyl-apinosyl (1→6) glucoside, pseudoginsenoside F11, and annonaine were differential components, which might be responsible for variation in efficacy. Further analysis using zebrafish models, network pharmacology, and Q-PCR techniques showed that ginsenoside Rg3, ginsenoside Rg5, ginsenoside Rg6, malic acid, quinic acid, and pseudoginsenoside F11 were the pharmacodynamic markers (P-markers) responsible for anti-heart failure.

Conclusion: We have rapidly identified the P-markers against heart failure in AG using the zebrafish model and metabolomics technology. These P-markers may provide new reference standards for quality control and new drug development of AG.

Comparison of the Saponins in Three Processed American Ginseng Products by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole Orbitrap Tandem Mass Spectrometry and Multivariate Statistical Analysis

A method with ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography Quadrupole-Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS/MS) was applied for the quality evaluation of different processing and drying of American ginseng, including natural drying (ND), steam drying (SD), and vacuum freeze-drying (VFD). A total of 51 saponins were successfully identified in three processed products. Three processed American ginseng products were well-differentiated in orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The S-plot also identified the marker compounds in each product, while the major ginsenosides of ND (malonyl (M)-Rd, M-Rb₁, Rg₁), SD (20 (S)-Rg₃, 20 (S)-Rg₂), and VFD (M-Rd, M-Rb₁) were found. The results indicate that the method by vacuum freeze-drying can retain the content of rare ginsenosides and malonyl-ginsenosides. The marker compounds selected will benefit the holistic evaluation of related American ginseng products.

The Antiviral Effect of Panax Notoginseng Polysaccharides by Inhibiting PRV Adsorption and Replication In Vitro

Porcine pseudorabies (PR) is an important infectious disease caused by pseudorabies virus (PRV), which poses a major threat to food safety and security. Vaccine immunization has become the main means to prevent and control the disease. However, since 2011, a new PRV variant has caused huge economic losses to the Chinese pig industry. Panax notoginseng polysaccharides have immunomodulatory activity and other functions, but the antiviral effect has not been reported. We studied the anti-PRV activity of Panax notoginseng polysaccharides in vitro. A less cytopathic effect was observed by increasing the concentration of Panax notoginseng polysaccharides. Western blot, TCID₅₀, plaque assay, and IFA revealed that Panax notoginseng polysaccharides could significantly inhibit the infectivity of PRV XJ5 on PK15 cells. In addition, we also found that Panax notoginseng polysaccharides blocked the adsorption and replication of PRV to PK15 cells in a dose-dependent manner. These results show that Panax notoginseng polysaccharides play an antiviral effect mainly by inhibiting virus adsorption and replication in vitro. Therefore, Panax notoginseng polysaccharides may be a potential anti-PRV agent.

A comprehensive quality analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials of Asian ginseng and American ginseng based on the CONSORT guideline

Ginseng is an international herb that has been used for thousands of years. Two species most commonly applied and investigated in the ginseng family are Asian ginseng and American ginseng. The number of randomized controlled clinical trials (RCTs) has conspicuously increased, driven by the rapid development of ginseng. However, the reporting of RCT items of ginseng is deficient because of different trial designs and reporting formats, which is a challenge for researchers who are looking for the data with high quality and reliability. Thus, this study focused on providing an extensive analysis of these two species and examined the quality of the RCTs, based on the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) guideline. Ninety-one RCTs conducted from 1980 to 2019 that were related to Asian ginseng and American ginseng used singly met our inclusion criteria. We found that the reporting quality of the two species has improved during the past 40 years. Publication date and sample size were significantly associated with the reporting quality. Rigorous RCTs designed for the species of ginseng are warranted, which can shed light on product research and development of ginseng in the future.

A review of the immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharides isolated from Panax species

Panax polysaccharides are biopolymers that are isolated and purified from the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of Panax L. plants, which have attracted considerable attention because of their immunomodulatory activities. In this paper, the composition and structural characteristics of purified polysaccharides are reviewed. Moreover, the immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharides are described both in vivo and in vitro. In vitro, Panax polysaccharides exert immunomodulatory functions mainly by activating macrophages, dendritic cells, and the complement system. In vivo, Panax polysaccharides can increase the immune organ indices and stimulate lymphocytes. In addition, this paper also discusses the membrane receptors and various signalling pathways of immune cells. Panax polysaccharides have many beneficial therapeutic effects, including enhancing or activating the immune response, and may be helpful in treating cancer, sepsis, osteoporosis, and other conditions. Panax polysaccharides have the potential for use in the development of novel therapeutic agents or adjuvants with beneficial immunomodulatory properties.

The positive role of traditional Chinese medicine as an adjunctive therapy for cancer

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), especially Chinese herbal medicines and acupuncture, has been traditionally used to treat patients with cancers in China and other East Asian countries. Numerous studies have indicated that TCM not only alleviates the symptoms (e.g., fatigue, chronic pain, anorexia/cachexia, and insomnia) of patients with cancer and improves their quality of life (QOL) but also diminishes adverse reactions and complications caused by chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or targeted-therapy. Therefore, Chinese herbal medicines and acupuncture and other alternative therapies need to be understood by TCM physicians and other health care providers. This review mainly summarizes the experimental results and conclusions from literature published since 2010, and a search of the literature as been performed in the PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus, Springer, ScienceDirect, and China Hospital Knowledge Database (CHKD) databases. Some Chinese herbal medicines (e.g., Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, Astragali radix, Bu-zhong-yi-qi-tang (TJ-41), Liu-jun-zi-tang (TJ-43), Shi-quan-da-bu-tang (TJ-48), and Ban-xia-xie-xin-tang (TJ-14)) and some acupuncture points (e.g., Zusanli (ST36), Zhongwan (CV12), Neiguan (PC6) and Baihui (GV20)) that are commonly used to treat cancer-related symptoms and/or to reduce the toxicity of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or targeted-therapy are highlighted and summarized. Through a review of literature, we conclude that TCM can effectively alleviate adverse gastrointestinal reactions (including diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting) to these anti-cancer therapies, decrease the incidence of bone marrow suppression, alleviate cardiotoxicity, and protect against chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy and radiation-induced pneumonitis. Moreover, TCM can alleviate epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI)-related acneiform eruptions, diarrhea, and other adverse reactions. The hope is that this review can contribute to an understanding of TCM as an adjuvant therapy for cancer and that it can provide useful information for the development of more effective anti-cancer therapies. However, more rigorously designed trials involving cancer treatment must be conducted in the future, including complete quality control and standardized models at the cellular, organic, animal and clinical levels, in order to study TCM in multiple forms and at multiple levels.

Region-Specific Biomarkers and Their Mechanisms in the Treatment of Lung Adenocarcinoma: A Study of Panax quinquefolius from Wendeng, China

Panax quinquefolius, a popular medicinal herb, has been cultivated in China for many years. In this work, the region-specific profiles of metabolites in P. quinquefolius from Wendeng was investigated using liquid-chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight-(LC-Q-TOF)-based metabolomics analysis. The three most abundant biomarkers, identified as ginsenoside Rb₃, notoginsenoside R₁, and ginsenoside Rc, were the representative chemical components employed in the network pharmacology analysis. In addition, molecular docking and western blotting analyses revealed that the three compounds were effective binding ligands with Hsp90α, resulting in the inactivation of SRC and PI3K kinase, which eventually led to the inactivation of the Akt and ERK pathways and lung cancer suppression. The outcomes obtained herein demonstrated the intriguing chemical characteristics and potential functional activities of P. quinquefolius from Wendeng.

Comparisons of Isolation Methods, Structural Features, and Bioactivities of the Polysaccharides from Three Common Panax Species: A Review of Recent Progress

Panax spp. (Araliaceae family) are widely used medicinal plants and they mainly include Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Panax quinquefolium L. (American ginseng), and Panax notoginseng (notoginseng). Polysaccharides are the main active ingredients in these plants and have demonstrated diverse pharmacological functions, but comparisons of isolation methods, structural features, and bioactivities of these polysaccharides have not yet been reported. This review summarizes recent advances associated with 112 polysaccharides from ginseng, 25 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 36 polysaccharides from notoginseng and it compares the differences in extraction, purification, structural features, and bioactivities. Most studies focus on ginseng polysaccharides and comparisons are typically made with the polysaccharides from American ginseng and notoginseng. For the extraction, purification, and structural analysis, the processes are similar for the polysaccharides from the three Panax species. Previous studies determined that 55 polysaccharides from ginseng, 18 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 9 polysaccharides from notoginseng exhibited anti-tumor activity, immunoregulatory effects, anti-oxidant activity, and other pharmacological functions, which are mediated by multiple signaling pathways, including mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor kappa B, or redox balance pathways. This review can provide new insights into the similarities and differences among the polysaccharides from the three Panax species, which can facilitate and guide further studies to explore the medicinal properties of the Araliaceae family used in traditional Chinese medicine.

The Synergistic Effects of Polysaccharides and Ginsenosides From American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) Ameliorating Cyclophosphamide-Induced Intestinal Immune Disorders and Gut Barrier Dysfunctions Based on Microbiome-Metabolomics Analysis

Cyclophosphamide (CTX), used in cancer chemotherapy, a high dose of which would cause immunosuppressive effect and intestinal mucosa damage. American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) has a long history of functional food use for immunological disorder, colitis, cancer, and so on. This study aimed to illustrate the underlying mechanism of American ginseng’s immunomodulatory effect in CTX-induced mice. In this study, all groups of American ginseng (American ginseng polysaccharide [AGP], American ginseng ginsenoside [AGG], co-treated with American ginseng polysaccharide and ginsenoside [AGP_AGG]) have relieve the immune disorder by reversing the lymphocyte subsets ratio in spleen and peripheral blood, as well as stimulating CD4⁺T cells and IgA-secreting cells in small intestine. These three treatment groups, especially AGP_AGG co-treated group recovered the intestine morphology that up-regulated villus height (VH)/crypt depth (CD) ratio, areas of mucins expression, quantity of goblet cells, and expression of tight junction proteins (ZO-1, occludin). Importantly, the microbiome-metabolomics analysis was applied in this study to illustrate the possible immuno-modulating mechanism. The synergistic effect of polysaccharides and ginsenosides (AGP_AGG group) restored the gut microbiota composition and increased various beneficial mucosa-associated bacterial taxa Clostridiales, Bifidobacterium, and Lachnospiraceae, while decreased harmful bacteria Escherichia-Shigella and Peptococcaceae. Also, AGP_AGG group altered various fecal metabolites such as uric acid, xanthurenic acid, acylcarnitine, 9,10-DHOME, 13-HDoHE, LysoPE15:0, LysoPC 16:0, LysoPI 18:0, and so on, that associated with immunometabolism or protective effect of gut barrier. These results suggest AG, particularly co-treated of polysaccharide and ginsenoside may be used as immunostimulants targeting microbiome-metabolomics axis to prevent CTX-induced side effects in cancer patients.