The Relation between Drying Conditions and the Development of Volatile Compounds in Saffron (Crocus sativus)

Mechanisms of aroma compound formation during the drying of Dendrobium nobile stems (Shihu)

To ensure the aroma and flavour quality of dried herbs, it is essential to understand flavour reactions that occur during complex drying mechanisms. This study investigated aroma formation in dried Dendrobium nobile stems (Shihu), valued in Chinese cuisine and traditional medicine. Stems were dried in a convection oven over 48 h (70 °C). Carotenoids, amino acids, monosaccharides, and the resultant volatile compounds were quantified using HPLC-DAD, LC-MS/MS, HPAEC-PAD and GC-MS, respectively. β-ionone, 4-oxoisophorone and dihydroactinidiolide were formed through carotenoid degradation (supported by the concomitant loss of the precursor β-carotene). Safranal and β-damascenone were formed only through thermal drying. Methional and 3-methylbutanal were formed through Strecker degradation as part of the Maillard reaction, flavour precursors methionine and leucine, in addition to glucose, levels also reduced. This study provides quantified evidence revealing the mechanisms of flavour formation in Shihu during the drying process. This offers scientific strategies to enhance the flavour quality of other comparable food ingredients.

Effects of different drying processes on the quality changes in Arapgir purple basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves and drying-induced changes in bioactive and volatile compounds and essential oils

The aim of this research is to examine the effects of drying purple basil leaves (Ocimum basilicum L.) under different drying conditions (freeze drying, sun-drying, and convective drying [CD] at 45, 50, and 55°C and microwave drying at 350, 460, and 600 W) on color properties, total phenolic and anthocyanin content, antioxidant activities, and changes in the composition of volatile compounds and essential oils (EOs). Increasing the drying temperature and microwave power led to an improvement in the preservation of the total phenolic content of the samples by an average of 16.28% and 27.98%, respectively. Increasing the drying temperature resulted in lower anthocyanin content and antioxidant activity (AA); in contrast, increasing the microwave power resulted in higher anthocyanin content and AA when drying purple basil. The drying methods significantly changed the composition of volatiles and EOs, and microwave drying resulted in a different profile of volatiles and EO composition. The key volatile compounds in purple basil leaves were linalol (81.19-1176.09 µg/g dw), 1,8-cineole (45.15-816.16 µg/g dw), and methyl cinnamate (13.20-637.65 µg/g dw). On the other hand, methyl cinnamate (11.68%-57.66%) and linalool (0.02%-20.39%) were the main volatile compounds of EOs in basil leaves. In conclusion, the following drying methods are suitable for the protection of phenolic and anthocyanin compounds and high performance of AA: freeze drying, sun-drying, and CD at 45°C and microwave drying at 600 W.

Drying of Saffron Petals as a Critical Step for the Stabilization of This Floral Residue Prior to Extraction of Bioactive Compounds

Saffron petals represent floral biomass generally wasted due to rapid deterioration. Previous characterization studies have revealed the presence of bioactive compounds in petals, such as flavonols and anthocyanins. Petal stabilization is a challenge for the efficient isolation of these compounds. This research evaluated three different drying techniques before the solid-liquid extraction of bioactive compounds: oven-drying (40 and 60 °C), lyophilization, and vacuum evaporation (25 and 50 °C). The characterization of the extracts allowed the annotation of 22 metabolites with a quantitative predominance of anthocyanins and derivatives of kaempferol and quercetin. Oven-drying at 60 °C was the most suitable approach for extracting minor compounds, such as crocins and safranal, at concentrations below 1 mg/g dry weight. Vacuum evaporation (50 °C) and lyophilization were the most recommended strategies for efficiently isolating flavonoids. Therefore, drying saffron petals is crucial to ensure the efficient extraction of bioactive compounds.

A non-invasive, sensor-based approach to exploit the autofluorescence of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) for on-site evaluation of aging

So far, compliance with ISO 3632 standard specifications for top-quality saffron guarantees good agricultural and post-harvest production practices. Tracking early-stage oxidation remains challenging. Our study aims to address this issue by exploring the visible, fluorescence, and near-infrared spectra of category I saffron. Using a multi-spectral sensor, we tested fresh and artificially aged saffron in powder form. High autofluorescence intensities at 600-700 nm allowed calibration for the 'content of aged saffron'. Samples with minimum coloring strength (200-220 units) were classified as 70% aged, while those exceeding maximum aroma strength (50 units) as 100% aged. Consistent patterns across origin, age, and processing history indicated potential for objectively assessing early-oxidation markers. Further analyses uncovered multiple contributing fluorophores, including cis-apocarotenoids, correlated with FTIR-based aging markers. Our findings underscore that sensing autofluorescence of traded saffron presents an innovative quality diagnostic approach, paving new research pathways for assessing the remaining shelf-life along its supply chain.

Potential therapeutic effects of crocin

Crocin, a natural bioactive compound derived from saffron (Crocus sativus) and other Crocus genera, has gained significant attention recently due to its potential therapeutic properties. The multifaceted nature of crocin's biological effects has piqued the interest of researchers and health enthusiasts, prompting further investigations into its mechanisms of action and therapeutic applications. This review article comprehensively explores the emerging evidence supporting crocin's role as a promising ally in protecting against metabolic disorders. The review covers the molecular mechanisms underlying crocin's beneficial effects and highlights its potential applications in preventing and treating diverse pathological conditions. Understanding the mechanisms through which crocin exerts its protective effects could advance scientific knowledge and offer potential avenues for developing novel therapeutic interventions. As we uncover the potential of crocin as a valuable ally in the fight against disorders, it becomes evident that nature's palette holds remarkable solutions for enhancing our health.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and Its By-Products: Healthy Effects in Internal Medicine

Crocus sativus L., commonly known as saffron, is a precious spice coming from Asia, in particular from Iran, the country leader in its production. The spice is derived exclusively from dried stigmas and it is the most expensive one in the world. The areas of application of saffron are multiple, in fact ranging across the food, drinks, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics sectors. As is the case with other phytochemicals, not only the final product but also saffron by-products are considered a valuable source of bioactive natural compounds. In fact, its healthy effects, especially as antioxidants and anti-inflammatories (via reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines), are well-recognized in internal medicine. In particular, its healthy effects are related to counteracting degenerative maculopathy, depression and anxiety, neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic syndrome, cancer and chronic kidney disease, by promoting glucose metabolism. In this review, we summarize the most important papers in which saffron has turned out to be a valuable ally in the prevention and treatment of these pathologies. Moreover, we would like to promote the use of saffron by-products as part of a bio-circular economy system, aimed at reducing wastes, at maximizing the use of resources and at promoting environmental and economic sustainability.

Distribution of Main Bioactive Compounds from Saffron Species as a Function of Infusion Temperature and Time in an Oil/Water System

Most research on saffron has focused on its composition and beneficial effects, while the culinary perspective to enhance its gastronomic potential remains unexplored. This study aims to define the transfer of the main compounds responsible for color, flavor, and aromatic properties, evaluating three critical variables: temperature (60 °C, 80 °C and 100 °C), infusion time (ranging from 10 to 30 min), and the composition of the medium (water, oil, and water/oil). Samples were analyzed using the LC-QTOF MS/MS and ISO 3632-1:2011 methods. The major compounds were crocins, including trans-crocin and picrocrocin. Among the flavonoids, kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside stands out. Regarding extraction conditions, crocins, glycoside flavonoids, and picrocrocin were enhanced in water, the former in 100% water and at low temperatures, while picrocrocin proved to be the most stable compound with extraction favored at high temperatures. The variable with the greatest incidence of picrocrocin isolation seemed to be the concentration of water since water/oil compositions reported higher concentrations. Safranal and kaempferol were enriched in the oil phase and at lower temperatures. This study provides a chemical interpretation for the appropriate gastronomic use of saffron according to its versatility. Finally, the determination of safranal using the ISO method did not correlate with that obtained using chromatography.

Research progress on the pharmacological activity, biosynthetic pathways, and biosynthesis of crocins

Crocins are water-soluble apocarotenoids isolated from the flowers of crocus and gardenia. They exhibit various pharmacological effects, including neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory properties, hepatorenal protection, and anticancer activity. They are often used as coloring and seasoning agents. Due to the limited content of crocins in plants and the high cost of chemical synthesis, the supply of crocins is insufficient to meet current demand. The biosynthetic pathways for crocins have been elucidated to date, which allows the heterologous production of these valuable compounds in microorganisms by fermentation. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the chemistry, pharmacological activity, biosynthetic pathways, and heterologous production of crocins, aiming to lay the foundation for the large-scale production of these valuable natural products by using engineered microbial cell factories.

Thermally treated peanut oil bodies as a fat replacer for ice cream: Physicochemical and rheological properties

This study investigates the potential use of peanut oil bodies as a fat replacer in ice cream. We explored the effects of different treatments, fresh (FOB), heated (HOB), and roasted (ROB) peanut oil bodies on ice cream preparation. Heat treatment altered the intrinsic protein profile on the oil bodies' surface, subsequently influencing the ice cream's properties. Notably, heat treatment increases the oil bodies' size and the absolute value of ζ-potential. The rheological analysis provided information about void volumes, indicating easier air incorporation during whipping for ROB (72 to 300 nm) than FOB (107 to 55 nm). ROB ice cream displays a high overrun and a lower melting rate compared to FOB ice cream. Moreover, thermal treatment reduces the beany flavors, n-hexanal, and 2-pentenylfuran. Overall, this study reveals peanut oil bodies as a promising platform for rational design of fat-substituted plant-based ice creams.

A Combined Gas and Liquid Chromatographic Approach for Quality Evaluation of Saffron-Based Food Supplements

Considering the interest in the bioactive properties of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), as well as its limited production and high price, saffron-based food supplements (SFS) are highly susceptible to adulteration. However, their complex composition and the wide variety of potential fraudulent practices make the comprehensive assessment of SFS quality a challenging task that has been scarcely addressed. To that aim, a new multianalytical strategy based on gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography with diode array detection coupled to mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS) was developed and validated in order to detect different frauds affecting SFS. Dried saffron stigmas and a commercial standardized saffron extract (affron®) were selected as reference samples (RS) to obtain an authenticity profile, which was further used to evaluate the quality of 17 SFS. Up to 17 crocins and crocetins, 5 kaempferol glycosides, picrocrocin (determined for the first time by GC-MS), safranal, furanone and isophorone-related compounds were determined in RS. Safranal and crocins were identified in all SFS except for one sample. However, discrepancies with the content declared were detected in 65% of the cases. Moreover, this multianalytical methodology also allowed identifying undeclared additives and the non-declared addition of vegetable sources other than saffron.

Saffron (Crocus sativus) and its constituents for pain management: A review of current evidence

Pain can become a chronic and deliberating experience with a significant burden. In preclinical and clinical studies, Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) has shown analgesic activities. Considering the unsatisfactory results of current therapeutic management for chronic pain conditions, we aimed to review saffron's analgesic activity and underlying mechanisms. Saffron showed antinociceptive activities in formalin-, carrageenan-, and capsaicin-induced experimental pain models. Saffron analgesic activities affected several targets, including ion channels of nociceptors; the adrenergic system and central histaminic system; inhibition of inflammatory pathways, apoptotic pathways, and oxidative stress; regulation of NO pathway, and the endocannabinoid system. Clinical studies showed analgesia of Saffron in rheumatoid arthritis, after-pain following childbirth, dysmenorrhea, and fibromyalgia. Our literature review showed that saffron can be beneficial as an adjunct therapy to commonly used analgesics in practice, particularly in chronic pain conditions.

The Nutrients and Volatile Compounds in Stropharia rugoso-annulata by Three Drying Treatments

This study aimed to examine the differences in the nutrients and volatile compounds of Stropharia rugoso-annulata after undergoing three different drying treatments. The fresh mushrooms were dried using hot air drying (HAD), vacuum freeze drying (VFD), and natural air drying (NAD), respectively. After that, the nutrients, volatile components, and sensory evaluation of the treated mushrooms were comparably analyzed. Nutrients analysis included proximate compositions, free amino acids, fatty acids, mineral elements, bioactive compositions, and antioxidant activity. Volatile components were identified by headspace-solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) and analyzed with principal component analysis (PCA). Finally, sensory evaluation was conducted by ten volunteers for five sensory properties. The results showed that the HAD group had the highest vitamin D₂ content (4.00 μg/g) and antioxidant activity. Compared with other treatments, the VFD group had higher overall nutrient contents, as well as being more preferred by consumers. Additionally, there were 79 volatile compounds identified by HS-SPME-GC-MS, while the NAD group showed the highest contents of volatile compounds (1931.75 μg/g) and volatile flavor compounds (1307.21 μg/g). PCA analysis suggested the volatile flavor compositions were different among the three groups. In summary, it is recommended that one uses VFD for obtaining higher overall nutritional values, while NAD treatment increased the production of volatile flavor components of the mushroom.

Fingerprint of Characteristic Saffron Compounds as Novel Standardization of Commercial Crocus sativus Extracts

Food supplements based on saffron (Crocus sativus L.) dried stigma extracts are widely consumed due to their multiple bioactive properties. Saffron extract (SE) standardization is of crucial importance, as it determines the reproducibility of the product quality and is essential for the evaluation of its bioactive effect and safety. Although SEs are commonly standardized considering their safranal content, the lack of specificity of the official methods may give inaccurate measurements. In addition to the development of more precise methodologies, the evaluation of alternative saffron components, such as crocins and picrocrocin, for standardization purposes would also be of interest. Thus, in this study, qualitative and quantitative information regarding picrocrocin and crocin isomers of different commercial saffron extracts was first obtained by a validated methodology using liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to diode array (DAD) and mass spectrometer (MS) detectors. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to gain insight into the compositional variability and natural grouping of SE. These studies suggested the potential use of the relative content of crocin isomers and trans-/cis-crocins and trans-4 GG/picrocrocin ratios as novel criteria for SE standardization. Their reproducibility and stability under controlled storage conditions for 36 months was demonstrated in a commercial standardized SE (affron^®).

Identification of Compounds of Crocus sativus by GC-MS and HPLC/UV-ESI-MS and Evaluation of Their Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Anticoagulant, and Antidiabetic Properties

In order to valorize the species Crocus sativus from Morocco and to prepare new products with high added value that can be used in the food and pharmaceutical industry, our interest was focused on the phytochemical characterization and the biological and pharmacological properties of the stigmas of this plant. For this purpose, the essential oil of this species, extracted by hydrodistillation and then analyzed by GC-MS, revealed a predominance of phorone (12.90%); (R)-(-)-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolane-4-methanol (11.65%); isopropyl palmitate (9.68%); dihydro-β-ionone (8.62%); safranal (6.39%); trans-β-ionone (4.81%); 4-keto-isophorone (4.72%); and 1-eicosanol (4.55%) as the major compounds. The extraction of phenolic compounds was performed by decoction and Soxhlet extraction. The results of the determination of flavonoids, total polyphenols, condensed tannins, and hydrolyzable tannins determined by spectrophotometric methods on aqueous and organic extracts have proved the richness of Crocus sativus in phenolic compounds. Chromatographic analysis by HPLC/UV-ESI-MS of Crocus sativus extracts revealed the presence of crocin, picrocrocin, crocetin, and safranal molecules specific to this species. The study of antioxidant activity by three methods (DPPH, FRAP, and total antioxidant capacity) has proved that C. sativus is a potential source of natural antioxidants. Antimicrobial activity of the aqueous extract (E0) was investigated by microdilution on a microplate. The results have revealed the efficacy of the aqueous extract against Acinetobacter baumannii and Shigella sp. with MIC ≤ 600 µg/mL and against Aspergillus niger, Candida kyfer, and Candida parapsilosis with MIC = 2500 µg/mL. Measurements of pro-thrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) in citrated plasma obtained from routine healthy blood donors were used to determine the anticoagulant activity of aqueous extract (E0). The anticoagulant activity of the extract (E0) studied showed that this extract can significantly prolong the partial thromboplastin time (p < 0.001) with a 359 µg/mL concentration. The antihyperglycemic effect of aqueous extract was studied in albino Wistar rats. The aqueous extract (E0) showed strong in vitro inhibitory activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase compared with acarbose. Thus, it very significantly inhibited postprandial hyperglycemia in albino Wistar rats. According to the demonstrated results, we can affirm the richness of Crocus sativus stigmas in bioactive molecules and its use in traditional medicine.

A Novel FTIR-Based Chemometric Solution for the Assessment of Saffron Adulteration with Non-Fresh Stigmas

The development of fast, non-destructive, and green methods with adequate sensitivity for saffron authentication has important implications in the quality control of the entire production chain of this precious spice. In this context, the highly suitable sensitivity of a spectroscopic method coupled with chemometrics was verified. A total number of 334 samples were analyzed using attenuated-total-reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy; the collected spectra were processed by partial-least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to evaluate the feasibility of this study for the discrimination between compliant saffron (fresh samples produced in 2020) and saffron samples adulterated with non-fresh stigmas produced in 2018 and 2016. PLS-DA was able to classify the saffron samples in accordance with the aging time and to discriminate fresh samples from the samples adulterated with non-fresh (legally expired) stigmas, achieving 100% of both sensitivity and specificity in external prediction. Moreover, PLS regression was able to predict the adulteration level with sufficient accuracy (the root-mean-square error of prediction was approximately 3-5%). In summary, ATR-FTIR and chemometrics can be employed to highlight the illegal blending of fresh saffron with unsold stocks of expired saffron, which may be a common fraudulent practice not yet considered in the scientific literature.

Crocin: Functional characteristics, extraction, food applications and efficacy against brain related disorders

Crocin is a bioactive compound that naturally occurs in some medicinal plants, especially saffron and gardenia fruit. Different conventional and novel methods are used for its extraction. Due to some control conditions, recent methods such as ultrasonic extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, enzyme-associated extraction, microwave extraction, and pulsed electric field extraction are widely used because these methods give more yield and efficiency. Crocin is incorporated into different food products to make functional foods. However, it can also aid in the stability of food products. Due to its ability to protect against brain diseases, the demand for crocin has been rising in the pharmaceutical industry. It also contain antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antidepressant qualities. This review aims to describe crocin and its role in developing functional food, extraction, and bioavailability in various brain-related diseases. The results of the literature strongly support the importance of crocin against various diseases and its use in making different functional foods.

Detection of Saffron’s Main Bioactive Compounds and Their Relationship with Commercial Quality

This review aims to evaluate the state of saffron’s main bioactive compounds and their relationship with its commercial quality. Saffron is the commercial name for the dried red stigmas of the Crocus sativus L. flower. It owes its sensory and functional properties mainly to the presence of its carotenoid derivatives, synthesized throughout flowering and also during the whole production process. These compounds include crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal, which are bioactive metabolites. Saffron’s commercial value is determined according to the ISO/TS3632 standard that determines their main apocatotenoids. Other techniques such as chromatography (gas and liquid) are used to detect the apocarotenoids. This, together with the determination of spectral fingerprinting or chemo typing are essential for saffron identification. The determination of the specific chemical markers coupled with chemometric methods favors the discrimination of adulterated samples, possible plants, or adulterating compounds and even the concentrations at which these are obtained. Chemical characterization and concentration of various compounds could be affected by saffron’s geographical origin and harvest/postharvest characteristics. The large number of chemical compounds found in the by-products (flower parts) of saffron (catechin, quercetin, delphinidin, etc.) make it an interesting aromatic spice as a colorant, antioxidant, and source of phytochemicals, which can also bring additional economic value to the most expensive aromatic species in the world.

Novel Insight into the Volatile Profile and Antioxidant Properties of Crocus sativus L. Flowers

The current production system of saffron spice generates hundreds of tons of waste. Thus, the aim of this study was to value both saffron and its floral by-products as a source of natural bioactive extracts, studying the in vitro antioxidant capacity, the composition of the volatile fraction by GC-MS/MS, and the determination of crocetins esters by HPLC-PDA. Saffron stigmas and floral by-products showed a high content of polyphenols and different antioxidant properties. Floral bio-residues (tepals, stamens, and styles) presented a high concentration of anthocyanins, and stigmas had high levels of flavonoids, β-carotene, and total crocins. In stigmas, 25 different volatile components were found, with safranal the most relevant. Floral by-products volatile composition consisted of 55 compounds with varying amounts depending on the drying treatment; all the samples presented acetic acid, 2(5H)-furanone, and phenylethyl alcohol. Therefore, saffron stigmas and flower by-products represent a sustainable source of bioactive ingredients for innovative healthy food formulations.

Safety Assessment and Pain Relief Properties of Saffron from Taliouine Region (Morocco)

Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world. In addition to its culinary utilization, this spice is used for medicinal purposes such as in pain management. In this study, the analgesic activity of Crocus sativus stigma extract (CSSE) was evaluated in rodents and its possible physiological mechanism was elucidated. The anti-nociceptive effect of CSSE was evaluated using three animal models (hot plate, writhing, and formalin tests). The analgesic pathways involved were assessed using various analgesia-mediating receptors antagonists. The oral administration of CSSE, up to 2000 mg/kg, caused no death or changes in the behavior or in the hematological and biochemical blood parameters of treated animals nor in the histological architecture of the animals’ livers and kidneys. CSSE showed a central, dose-dependent, anti-nociceptive effect in response to thermal stimuli; and a peripheral analgesic effect in the test of contortions induced by acetic acid. The dual (central and peripheral) analgesic effect was confirmed by the formalin test. The anti-nociceptive activity of CSSE was totally or partially reversed by the co-administration of receptor antagonists, naloxone, atropine, haloperidol, yohimbine, and glibenclamide. CSSE influenced signal processing, by the modulation of the opioidergic, adrenergic, and muscarinic systems at the peripheral and central levels; and by regulation of the dopaminergic system and control of the opening of the ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels at the spinal level. The obtained data point to a multimodal mechanism of action for CSSE: An anti-inflammatory effect and a modulation, through different physiological pathways, of the electrical signal generated by the nociceptors. Further clinical trials are required to endorse the potential utilization of Moroccan saffron as a natural painkiller.

Optimized Isolation of Safranal from Saffron by Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME) and Rotatable Central Composite Design-Response Surface Methodology (RCCD-RSM)

Safranal is the main aroma component of saffron stigmas. It is also a great antioxidant with known pharmacological properties and is a potent indicator for the grading and authentication of saffron. In this study, the optimum extraction conditions of safranal from saffron stigmas were investigated using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) and response surface methodology (RSM). A rotatable-central composite design was applied, and a linear regression model has been used for the model building. The optimized factors were as follows: sample weight (15 mg), water volume (4 mL), exposure time in the headspace (20 min), and extraction temperature (45 °C). All factors were found significant; however, extraction temperature and exposure time were the most important for the isolation of safranal. The obtained model was successfully validated with a test set of saffron samples analyzed under the optimum extraction conditions. The optimized SPME extraction conditions of safranal found in this study contribute to the efforts towards the detection of saffron authentication and adulteration.

Comprehensive Evaluation of the Volatomic Fingerprint of Saffron from Campania towards Its Authenticity and Quality

The volatile profiles of eight saffron samples (seven cultivated and one spontaneous) grown in different geographical districts within the Campania region (southern Italy) were compared. Using headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC-MS), overall, 80 volatiles were identified in the eight landraces. Among them, safranal and its isomers and other related compounds such as isophorones, which are not only key odorants but also pharmacologically active metabolites, have been detected in all the investigated samples. Principal Component Analysis performed on the volatiles' compounds revealed that the spontaneous sample turned out to be an outlier. In particular, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) profile of the spontaneous saffron presented four lilac aldehydes and four lilac alcohol isomers, which, to the authors' knowledge, have never been identified in the volatile signature of this spice. The multivariate statistical analysis allowed the discrimination of the seven cultivate saffron ecotypes in four well-separated clusters according to variety. Moreover, 20 VOCs, able to differentiate the clusters in terms of single volatile metabolite, were discovered. Altogether, these results could contribute to identifying possible volatile signature metabolites (biomarkers) or patterns that discriminate saffron samples grown in Campania region on a molecular basis, encouraging future biodiversity programs to preserve saffron landraces revealing valuable genetic resources.

The Pharmacological Activities of Crocus sativus L.: A Review Based on the Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities of its Phytoconstituents

Crocus species are mainly distributed in North Africa, Southern and Central Europe, and Western Asia, used in gardens and parks as ornamental plants, while Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is the only species that is cultivated for edible purpose. The use of saffron is very ancient; besides the use as a spice, saffron has long been known also for its medical and coloring qualities. Due to its distinctive flavor and color, it is used as a spice, which imparts food preservative activity owing to its antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. This updated review discusses the biological properties of Crocus sativus L. and its phytoconstituents, their pharmacological activities, signaling pathways, and molecular targets, therefore highlighting it as a potential herbal medicine. Clinical studies regarding its pharmacologic potential in clinical therapeutics and toxicity studies were also reviewed. For this updated review, a search was performed in the PubMed, Science, and Google Scholar databases using keywords related to Crocus sativus L. and the biological properties of its phytoconstituents. From this search, only the relevant works were selected. The phytochemistry of the most important bioactive compounds in Crocus sativus L. such as crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal and also dozens of other compounds was studied and identified by various physicochemical methods. Isolated compounds and various extracts have proven their pharmacological efficacy at the molecular level and signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, toxicity studies and clinical trials were analyzed. The research results highlighted the various pharmacological potentials such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, antidepressant, hypolipidemic, and antihyperglycemic properties and protector of retinal lesions. Due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, saffron has proven effective as a natural food preservative. Starting from the traditional uses for the treatment of several diseases, the bioactive compounds of Crocus sativus L. have proven their effectiveness in modern pharmacological research. However, pharmacological studies are needed in the future to identify new mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetic studies, new pharmaceutical formulations for target transport, and possible interaction with allopathic drugs.