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Kostka K, Sokolova V, El-Taibany A, Kruse B, Porada D, Wolff N, Prymak O, Seeds MC, Epple M, Atala AJ. The Application of Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticles (2 nm) Functionalized with Doxorubicin in Three-Dimensional Normal and Glioblastoma Organoid Models of the Blood-Brain Barrier. Molecules 2024; 29:2469. [PMID: 38893345 PMCID: PMC11173746 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29112469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Among brain tumors, glioblastoma (GBM) is very challenging to treat as chemotherapeutic drugs can only penetrate the brain to a limited extent due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nanoparticles can be an attractive solution for the treatment of GBM as they can transport drugs across the BBB into the tumor. In this study, normal and GBM organoids comprising six brain cell types were developed and applied to study the uptake, BBB penetration, distribution, and efficacy of fluorescent, ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (AuTio-Dox-AF647s) conjugated with doxorubicin (Dox) and AlexaFluor-647-cadaverine (AF647) by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), using a mixture of dissolved doxorubicin and fluorescent AF647 molecules as a control. It was shown that the nanoparticles could easily penetrate the BBB and were found in normal and GBM organoids, while the dissolved Dox and AF647 molecules alone were unable to penetrate the BBB. Flow cytometry showed a reduction in glioblastoma cells after treatment with AuTio-Dox nanoparticles, as well as a higher uptake of these nanoparticles by GBM cells in the GBM model compared to astrocytes in the normal cell organoids. In summary, our results show that ultrasmall gold nanoparticles can serve as suitable carriers for the delivery of drugs into organoids to study BBB function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Kostka
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Viktoriya Sokolova
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Aya El-Taibany
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Benedikt Kruse
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Daniel Porada
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Natalie Wolff
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Oleg Prymak
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Michael C. Seeds
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Anthony J. Atala
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
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Epple M, Rotello VM, Dawson K. The Why and How of Ultrasmall Nanoparticles. Acc Chem Res 2023; 56:3369-3378. [PMID: 37966025 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.3c00459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
ConspectusIn this Account, we describe our research into ultrasmall nanoparticles, including their unique properties, and outline some of the new opportunities they offer. We will summarize our perspective on the current state of the field and highlight what we see as key questions that remain to be solved. First, there are several nanostructure size-scale regimes, with qualitatively distinct functional biological attributes. Broadly generalized, larger particles (e.g., larger than 300 nm) tend to be more efficiently swept away by the first line of the immune system (for example macrophages). In the "middle-sized" regime (20-300 nm), nanoparticle surfaces and shapes can be recognized by energy-dependent cellular reorganizations, then organized locally in a spatial and temporally coherent way. That energy is gated and made available by specific cellular recognition processes. The relationship between particle surface design, endogenously derived nonspecific biomolecular corona, and architectural features recognized by the cell is complex and only purposefully and very precisely designed nanoparticle architectures are able to navigate to specific targets. At sufficiently small sizes (<10 nm including the ligand shell, associated with a core diameter of a few nm at most) we enter the "quasi-molecular regime" in which the endogenous biomolecular environment exchanges so rapidly with the ultrasmall particle surface that larger scale cellular and immune recognition events are often greatly simplified. As an example, ultrasmall particles can penetrate cellular and biological barriers within tissue architectures via passive diffusion, in much the same way as small molecule drugs do. An intriguing question arises: what happens at the interface of cellular recognition and ultrasmall quasi-molecular size regimes? Succinctly put, ultrasmall conjugates can evade defense mechanisms driven by larger scale cellular nanoscale recognition, enabling them to flexibly exploit molecular interaction motifs to interact with specific targets. Numerous advances in control of architecture that take advantage of these phenomena have taken place or are underway. For instance, syntheses can now be sufficiently controlled that it is possible to make nanoparticles of a few hundreds of atoms or metalloid clusters of several tens of atoms that can be characterized by single crystal X-ray structure analysis. While the synthesis of atomically precise clusters in organic solvents presents challenges, water-based syntheses of ultrasmall nanoparticles can be upscaled and lead to well-defined particle populations. The surface of ultrasmall nanoparticles can be covalently modified with a wide variety of ligands to control the interactions of these particles with biosystems, as well as drugs and fluorophores. And, in contrast to larger particles, many advanced molecular analytical and separation tools can be applied to understand their structure. For example, NMR spectroscopy allows us to obtain a detailed image of the particle surface and the attached ligands. These are considerable advantages that allow further elaboration of the level of architectural control and characterization of the ultrasmall structures required to access novel functional regimes and outcomes. The ultrasmall nanoparticle regime has a unique status and provides a potentially very interesting direction for development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstrasse 5-7, 45117 Essen, Germany
| | - Vincent M Rotello
- Charles A. Goessmann Professor of Chemistry and University Distinguished Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002, United States
| | - Kenneth Dawson
- UCD School of Chemistry, Science Centre South, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Stahl P, Kollenda S, Sager J, Schmidt L, Schroer MA, Stauber RH, Epple M, Knauer SK. Tuning Nanobodies' Bioactivity: Coupling to Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticles Allows the Intracellular Interference with Survivin. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2300871. [PMID: 37035950 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202300871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Nanobodies are highly affine binders, often used to track disease-relevant proteins inside cells. However, they often fail to interfere with pathobiological functions, required for their clinical exploitation. Here, a nanobody targeting the disease-relevant apoptosis inhibitor and mitosis regulator Survivin (SuN) is utilized. Survivin's multifaceted functions are regulated by an interplay of dynamic cellular localization, dimerization, and protein-protein interactions. However, as Survivin harbors no classical "druggable" binding pocket, one must aim at blocking extended protein surface areas. Comprehensive experimental evidence demonstrates that intracellular expression of SuN allows to track Survivin at low nanomolar concentrations but failed to inhibit its biological functions. Small angle X-ray scattering of the Survivin-SuN complex locates the proposed interaction interface between the C-terminus and the globular domain, as such not blocking any pivotal interaction. By clicking multiple SuN to ultrasmall (2 nm) gold nanoparticles (SuN-N), not only intracellular uptake is enabled, but additionally, Survivin crosslinking and interference with mitotic progression in living cells are also enabled. In sum, it is demonstrated that coupling of nanobodies to nanosized scaffolds can be universally applicable to improve their function and therapeutic applicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Stahl
- Molecular Biology II, Department of Biology, Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Kollenda
- Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 7, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Jonas Sager
- Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 7, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Laura Schmidt
- Molecular Biology II, Department of Biology, Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Martin A Schroer
- Nanoparticle Process Technology, Department of Engineering, University of Duisburg-Essen, Lotharstr. 1, 47057, Duisburg, Germany
| | - Roland H Stauber
- Molecular and Cellular Oncology/ENT, University Medical Center Mainz (UMM), Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE) and Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 7, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Shirley K Knauer
- Molecular Biology II, Department of Biology, Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB) and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany
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Wolff N, Kollenda S, Klein K, Loza K, Heggen M, Brochhagen L, Witzke O, Krawczyk A, Hilger I, Epple M. Silencing of proinflammatory NF-κB and inhibition of herpes simplex virus (HSV) replication by ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (2 nm) conjugated with small-interfering RNA. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2022; 4:4502-4516. [PMID: 36341304 PMCID: PMC9595109 DOI: 10.1039/d2na00250g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Azide-terminated ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (2 nm gold core) were covalently functionalized with alkyne-terminated small-interfering siRNA duplexes by copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC; click chemistry). The nanoparticle core was visualized by transmission electron microscopy. The number of attached siRNA molecules per nanoparticle was determined by a combination of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS; for gold) and UV-Vis spectroscopy (for siRNA). Each nanoparticle carried between 6 and 10 siRNA duplex molecules which corresponds to a weight ratio of siRNA to gold of about 2.2 : 1. Different kinds of siRNA were conjugated to the nanoparticles, depending on the gene to be silenced. In general, the nanoparticles were readily taken up by cells and highly efficient in gene silencing, in contrast to free siRNA. This was demonstrated in HeLa-eGFP cells (silencing of eGFP) and in LPS-stimulated macrophages (silencing of NF-κB). Furthermore, we demonstrated that nanoparticles carrying antiviral siRNA potently inhibited the replication of Herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) in vitro. This highlights the strong potential of siRNA-functionalized ultrasmall gold nanoparticles in a broad spectrum of applications, including gene silencing and treatment of viral infections, combined with a minimal dose of gold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Wolff
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen 45117 Essen Germany
| | - Sebastian Kollenda
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen 45117 Essen Germany
| | - Kai Klein
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen 45117 Essen Germany
| | - Kateryna Loza
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen 45117 Essen Germany
| | - Marc Heggen
- Ernst-Ruska Centre for Microscopy and Spectroscopy with Electrons, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH 52428 Jülich Germany
| | - Leonie Brochhagen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, West German Centre of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen Hufelandstr. 55 45147 Essen Germany
| | - Oliver Witzke
- Department of Infectious Diseases, West German Centre of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen Hufelandstr. 55 45147 Essen Germany
| | - Adalbert Krawczyk
- Department of Infectious Diseases, West German Centre of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen Hufelandstr. 55 45147 Essen Germany
| | - Ingrid Hilger
- Department of Experimental Radiology, Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena Am Klinikum 1 07740 Jena Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen 45117 Essen Germany
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