Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of β-Caryophyllene in Healthy Subjects Using the VESIsorb® Formulation Technology, a Novel Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SEDDS)

Role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ in mediating the beneficial effects of β-caryophyllene in a rat model of fragile X syndrome

β-Caryophyllene (BCP) is a naturally occurring sesquiterpene found in numerous plant species, including Cannabis sativa. BCP has shown a high safety profile and a wide range of biological functions, including beneficial effects in neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases. Here, we used behavioral, pharmacological, and in-silico docking analyses to investigate the effects and mechanism of action of BCP in Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), the most common inherited cause of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability. To this aim, we used the recently validated Fmr1-Δexon 8 rat model of FXS, that is also a genetic rat model of ASD. Acute and repeated oral administration of BCP rescued the cognitive deficits displayed by Fmr1-Δexon 8 rats, without inducing tolerance after repeated administration. These beneficial effects were mediated by activation of hippocampal peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) α and γ, and were mimicked by the PPARα agonist Fenofibrate and the PPARγ agonist Pioglitazone. Conversely, CB2 cannabinoid receptors were not involved. Docking analyses further confirmed the ability of BCP to bind rat PPARs. Together, our findings demonstrate that hippocampal PPARs α and γ play a role in the cognitive deficits observed in a rat model of FXS, and provide first preclinical evidence about the efficacy and mechanism of action of BCP in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Transethosomal system for enhanced transdermal delivery and therapeutic effect of caryophyllene oxide

AIM

This study focuses on the design and investigation a transethosomal formulation for enhanced topical delivery and improved analgesic activity of caryophyllene oxide. In addition, this work explores new potential mechanisms of analgesic activity of the active compound including alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isooxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) and Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2).

METHODS

The transethosomal system containing various caryophyllene concentrations was prepared. The optimum formulation was characterized for the presence of nanovesicles by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). FTIR was conducted to examine the interaction between the nanovesicle components. The ability of the representative system to enhance the delivery of caryophyllene oxide into and through the skin compared with a coarse emulsion, was examined using porcine ear skin, Franz diffusion cells, and HPLC analysis. The in vivo analgesic efficacy of caryophyllene oxide administrated from the nanovesicular carrier was assessed using the acetic acid-induced pain mouse model compared to a conventional topical formulation. In the second part of the study, the mechanism of analgesic activity of caryophyllene oxide was investigated using AMPA and COX-2 receptors activity in vitro assays.

RESULTS

Characterization studies revealed the presence of spherical nanovesicles with an average size of 450.7 ± 55.03 nm. The transethosomal system demonstrated superior skin penetration compared to a conventional emulsion, as demonstrated by the in vitro skin penetration study, with a caryophyllene oxide permeated amount of 40.3 ± 0.881 µg/cm2 via the transethosomal system compared to the emulsion which delivered only 29.5 ± 10.5 µg/cm2. Moreover, a significantly greater amount of caryophyllene oxide was extracted from the skin following the application of the transethosomal formulation (251.8 ± 76.03 µg/cm2) compared to that extracted from the skin following the ointment application (13.5 ± 0.6 µg/cm2). The in vivo experiment demonstrated that the transethosomal formulation significantly reduced writhing episodes, achieving an 80.5 % Maximum Possible Effect (%MPE) compared to 24.7 % for the conventional topical formulation. In vitro mechanistic studies indicated that caryophyllene oxide exhibited a potent COX-2 selectivity and significantly modulated AMPA receptor subunit activity, highlighting a potential mechanism for pain therapy via the two investigated mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscore the effectiveness of the caryophyllene oxide transethosomal system in enhancing topical drug delivery and achieving adequate therapeutic efficacy, making it a promising candidate for further clinical development. The study's outcomes shed light on the possible mechanism of analgesia of caryophyllene oxide via COX and AMPAR modulation.

Beta-caryophyllene in psychiatric and neurological diseases: Role of blood-brain barrier

Beta-caryophyllene is an abundant terpene in cannabis, cinnamon, black pepper, cloves, and citrus fruit, delivering a striking, woody-spicy, like cloves and a sweet fruity aroma. Beta-caryophyllene is a Food and Drug Administration-approved food additive with Generally Recognized as Safe status. Interestingly, several biologic activities have been described for beta-caryophyllene, including anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia and neuronal injury, protection of neurovascular unit against oxidative damage, glial activation and neuroinflammation and anticonvulsant effects. In this chapter, we intend to review the beneficial effects of beta-caryophyllene in the context of psychiatric and neurological diseases. Also, we will analyze the possibility that the blood-brain-barrier may be a central target underlying the beneficial actions of beta-caryophyllene.

Cutaneous Delivery and Biodistribution of Cannabidiol in Human Skin after Topical Application of Colloidal Formulations

The objective of this study was to investigate the cutaneous delivery of cannabidiol (CBD) from aqueous formulations developed for the targeted local treatment of dermatological conditions. CBD was formulated using a proprietary colloidal drug delivery system (VESIsorb®) into an aqueous colloidal solution at 2% (ACS 2%) and two colloidal gels (CG 1% and CG 2%, which contained 1% and 2% CBD, respectively). Two basic formulations containing CBD (5% in propylene glycol (PG 5%) and a 6.6% oil solution (OS 6.6%)) and two marketed CBD products (RP1 and RP2, containing 1% CBD) were used as comparators. Cutaneous delivery and cutaneous biodistribution experiments were performed using human abdominal skin (500-700 µm) under infinite- and finite-dose conditions with 0.5% Tween 80 in the PBS receiver phase. The quantification of CBD in the skin samples was performed using a validated UHPLC-MS/MS method and an internal standard (CBD-d3). The cutaneous deposition of CBD under finite-dose conditions demonstrated the superiority of CG 1%, CG 2%, and ACS 2% over the marketed products; CG 1% had the highest delivery efficiency (5.25%). Cutaneous biodistribution studies showed the superiority of the colloidal systems in delivering CBD to the viable epidermis, and the upper and lower papillary dermis, which are the target sites for the treatment of several dermatological conditions.

Co-delivery of beta-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the oily core of nanoemulsions potentiates the anti-inflammatory effect in LPS-stimulated macrophage model

The potentiation of pharmacological effects can be achieved through several strategies, such as the association of substances and delivery in nanostructured systems. In practice, potentiation can be measured by the law of mass action and joint evaluation of the combination index (CI) and dose-response curves. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of the association of β-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the free form and delivered in nanoemulsions using the in vitro model of LPS-stimulated murine macrophage. The results indicated potentiation of the anti-inflammatory effect of nanoemulsified substances compared to free substances, as well as synergistic action between the sesquiterpene and the selected NSAID. In comparison, the association of β-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the free form inhibited the production of nitric oxide by 50% at 48.60 µg/mL (CI = 0.21), while the nanoemulsified association of these substances resulted in an IC50 of 1.45 µg/mL (CI = 0.14). In parallel, cytotoxicity assays on HaCaT and MRC-5 cell lines demonstrated the safety of IC50-equivalent concentrations of the anti-inflammatory action, and no irritating effects on the chorioallantoic membrane of embryonated eggs were observed (HET-CAM assay). The results suggest that β-caryophyllene may be an alternative to replace an inert oily core in nanoemulsion systems when anti-inflammatory effects are desirable.

β-Caryophyllene-Loaded Microemulsion-Based Topical Hydrogel: A Promising Carrier to Enhance the Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Outcomes

Musculoskeletal pain and inflammation can vary from localised pain like pain in the shoulders and neck to widespread pain like fibromyalgia, and as per estimates, around 90% of humans have experienced such pain. Oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are frequently prescribed for such conditions but are associated with concerns like gastric irritation and bleeding. In the present study, a microemulsion-based gel comprising β-caryophyllene, isopropyl myristate, Tween 80, and normal saline was prepared as a topical option for managing topical pain and inflammation. The globules of the microemulsion were below 100 nm with a zetapotential of around -10 mV. The drug entrapment was >87% with a drug loading of >23%. The permeation studies established better skin permeation (20.11 ± 0.96 μg cm-2 h-1) and retention of the drug (4.96 ± 0.02%) from the developed system vis-à-vis the conventional product (9.73 ± 0.35 μg cm-2 h-1; 1.03 ± 0.01%). The dermatokinetic studies established the better pharmacokinetic profile of the bioactive in the epidermis and dermis layers of the skin. The anti-inflammatory potential in carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema was more pronounced than the conventional product (~91% vis-à-vis ~77%), indicating a better pharmacodynamic outcome from the developed system. The nanotechnology-based natural bioactive product with improved efficacy and drug loading can provide a better alternative for the management of musculoskeletal pain.

Piper nigrum Extract: Dietary Supplement for Reducing Mammary Tumor Incidence and Chemotherapy-Induced Toxicity

A low piperine fractional Piper nigrum extract (PFPE) was prepared by mixing cold-pressed coconut oil and honey in distilled water, namely, PFPE-CH. In this study, PFPE-CH was orally administered as a dietary supplement to decrease the risk of tumor formation and reduce the side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs during breast cancer treatment. The toxicity study demonstrated no mortality or adverse effects after administrating PFPE-CH at 5000 mg/kg during a 14-day observation period. Additionally, PFPE-CH at 86 mg/kg BW/day did not cause any harm to the kidney or liver function of the rats for six months. In a cancer prevention study, treatment with PFPE-CH at 100 mg/kg BW for 101 days induced oxidative stress and increased the immune response by altering the levels of cancer-associated cytokines (IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-g), leading to a reduction in the tumor incidence of up to 71.4% without any adverse effects. In combination with doxorubicin, PFPE-CH did not disrupt the anticancer effects of the drug in rats with mammary tumors. Surprisingly, PFPE-CH reduced chemotherapy-induced toxicity by improving some hematological and biochemical parameters. Therefore, our results suggest that PFPE-CH is safe and effective in reducing breast tumor incidence and toxicity of chemotherapeutic drugs during cancer treatment in mammary tumor rats.

Beta-Caryophyllene Modifies Intracellular Lipid Composition in a Cell Model of Hepatic Steatosis by Acting through CB2 and PPAR Receptors

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common cause of chronic liver disease; however, no specific pharmacological therapy has yet been approved for this condition. Plant-derived extracts can be an important source for the development of new drugs. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of (E)-β-caryophyllene (BCP), a phytocannabinoid recently found to be beneficial against metabolic diseases, on HepG2 steatotic hepatocytes. Using a fluorescence-based lipid quantification assay and GC-MS analysis, we show that BCP is able to decrease lipid accumulation in steatotic conditions and to change the typical steatotic lipid profile by primarily reducing saturated fatty acids. By employing specific antagonists, we demonstrate that BCP action is mediated by multiple receptors: CB2 cannabinoid receptor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) and γ (PPARγ). Interestingly, BCP was able to counteract the increase in CB2 and the reduction in PPARα receptor expression observed in steatotic conditions. Moreover, through immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy, we demonstrate that CB2 receptors are mainly intracellularly localized and that BCP is internalized in HepG2 cells with a maximum peak at 2 h, suggesting a direct interaction with intracellular receptors. The results obtained with BCP in normal and steatotic hepatocytes encourage future applications in the treatment of NAFLD.