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Piyathilake U, Lin C, Bolan N, Bundschuh J, Rinklebe J, Herath I. Exploring the hidden environmental pollution of microplastics derived from bioplastics: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 355:141773. [PMID: 38548076 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/18/2024]
Abstract
Bioplastics might be an ecofriendly alternative to traditional plastics. However, recent studies have emphasized that even bioplastics can end up becoming micro- and nano-plastics due to their degradation under ambient environmental conditions. Hence, there is an urgent need to assess the hidden environmental pollution caused by bioplastics. However, little is known about the evolutionary trends of bibliographic data, degradation pathways, formation, and toxicity of micro- and nano-scaled bioplastics originating from biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, and starch-based plastics. Therefore, the prime objective of the current review was to investigate evolutionary trends and the latest advancements in the field of micro-bioplastic pollution. Additionally, it aims to confront the limitations of existing research on microplastic pollution derived from the degradation of bioplastic wastes, and to understand what is needed in future research. The literature survey revealed that research focusing on micro- and nano-bioplastics has begun since 2012. This review identifies novel insights into microbioplastics formation through diverse degradation pathways, including photo-oxidation, ozone-induced degradation, mechanochemical degradation, biodegradation, thermal, and catalytic degradation. Critical research gaps are identified, including defining optimal environmental conditions for complete degradation of diverse bioplastics, exploring micro- and nano-bioplastics formation in natural environments, investigating the global occurrence and distribution of these particles in diverse ecosystems, assessing toxic substances released during bioplastics degradation, and bridging the disparity between laboratory studies and real-world applications. By identifying new trends and knowledge gaps, this study lays the groundwork for future investigations and sustainable solutions in the realm of sustainable management of bioplastic wastes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udara Piyathilake
- Environmental Science Division, National Institute of Fundamental Studies (NIFS), Kandy, 2000, Sri Lanka
| | - Chuxia Lin
- Centre for Regional and Rural Futures, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Built Environment, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, 3125, Australia
| | - Nanthi Bolan
- UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, 6009, Australia; The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, 6009, Australia
| | - Jochen Bundschuh
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences, The University of Southern Queensland, West Street, 4350, QLD, Australia
| | - Jörg Rinklebe
- University of Wuppertal, School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Institute of Foundation Engineering, Water- and Waste-Management, Laboratory of Soil- and Groundwater-Management, Pauluskirchstraße 7, 42285, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Indika Herath
- Centre for Regional and Rural Futures, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Built Environment, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, VIC, 3216, Australia.
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Messai R, Ferhat MF, Serouti A, Nourelhouda B, Humayun M, Allag N, Zoukel A, Ghezzar MR, Bououdina M. Rapid synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles via gliding arc discharge: unveiling the impact of discharge time on particle properties and photocatalytic performance. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:33885-33903. [PMID: 38691291 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33442-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Herein, we present a novel approach for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using a non-thermal plasma source generated by the gliding arc discharge-air system. The effect of discharge time on the physical and optical properties, as well as the photocatalytic performance of the as-fabricated ZnO NPs, was investigated. The characterization techniques revealed that the as-synthesized ZnO exhibit hexagonal Wurtzite structure, with a wide energy gap and peak intensities of UV-vis absorption with longer discharge times. A decrease in particle size from 29 to 25 nm was also observed with increasing discharge time, while all samples were thermally stable between 25 and 700 °C. The photocatalytic performance of the ZnO NPs was evaluated by degrading Congo Red (CR) dye with a concentration of 20 ppm under sunlight at a dose of 1 mg/mL. The as-synthesized ZnO NPs revealed exceptional photocatalytic performance by degrading ~ 97% of CR dye after irradiation for 150 min. This work presents an easy and simple method for synthesizing NPs in a short time and pave the way for other potential ideas on the application of plasma gliding arc discharge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ridha Messai
- Faculty of Technology, Department of Process Engineering, University of El Oued, 39000, El Oued, Algeria
- Laboratory of Sciences and Techniques of the Environment and Valorization, University Abdelhamid Ben Badis of Mostaganem, BP 227, 27000, Mostaganem, Algeria
| | - Mohammed Fouad Ferhat
- Faculty of Technology, Department of Process Engineering, University of El Oued, 39000, El Oued, Algeria
- Laboratory of Sciences and Techniques of the Environment and Valorization, University Abdelhamid Ben Badis of Mostaganem, BP 227, 27000, Mostaganem, Algeria
- Faculty of Exact Sciences, Department of Chemistry, University of El Oued, 39000, El Oued, Algeria
| | - Abdelghani Serouti
- Faculty of Technology, Department of Process Engineering, University of El Oued, 39000, El Oued, Algeria
- Unit of Renewable Energy Development in Arid Zone (UDERZA), University of El Oued, 39000, El Oued, Algeria
| | - Bounedjar Nourelhouda
- Faculty of Exact Sciences, Department of Chemistry, University of El Oued, 39000, El Oued, Algeria
- Unit of Renewable Energy Development in Arid Zone (UDERZA), University of El Oued, 39000, El Oued, Algeria
- Energy, Water and Environment Lab, College of Humanities and Sciences, Prince Sultan University, 11586, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Humayun
- Energy, Water and Environment Lab, College of Humanities and Sciences, Prince Sultan University, 11586, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Nassiba Allag
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, University of El Oued, 39000, El Oued, Algeria
| | - Abdelhalim Zoukel
- Laboratory Physico-Chemistry of Materials, Laghouat University, Laghouat, Algeria
- Center for Scientific and Technical Research in Physicochemical Analysis (PTAPC-Laghouat-CRAPC), Laghouat, Algeria
| | - Mouffok Redouane Ghezzar
- Laboratory of Sciences and Techniques of the Environment and Valorization, University Abdelhamid Ben Badis of Mostaganem, BP 227, 27000, Mostaganem, Algeria
| | - Mohamed Bououdina
- Energy, Water and Environment Lab, College of Humanities and Sciences, Prince Sultan University, 11586, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Natasha, Khan A, Rahman UU, Sadaf, Yaseen M, Abumousa RA, Khattak R, Rehman N, Bououdina M, Humayun M. Effective Removal of Nile Blue Dye from Wastewater using Silver-Decorated Reduced Graphene Oxide. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:19461-19480. [PMID: 38708276 PMCID: PMC11064184 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c00973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 04/06/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Nile blue (NB) dye is a highly toxic substance that when discharged into sewage presents a significant risk to the environment and human health. Carbon-based nanomaterials, such as graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and their nanocomposites, offer considerable potential for eliminating hazardous pollutants from aqueous systems. In this study, we have successfully fabricated bare GO and rGO, and then, the rGO was decorated with silver (Ag) nanoparticles to develop the Ag-rGO composite. The as-prepared materials were characterized by various techniques, such as UV-visible (UV-vis) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopies, X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to elucidate their structure, morphology, and chemical composition. The pollutant removal performance of the as-prepared materials was evaluated through a batch approach under the effect of various experimental variables for removal of NB dye from wastewater. As obvious, the Ag-rGO composite revealed exceptional performance for NB dye removal from wastewater, with a maximum removal percentage of 94% within 60 min, which is remarkably higher than those of the rGO (i.e., 59%) and GO (i.e., 22%), under the same experimental conditions. The adsorption data was analyzed with thermodynamics, isotherms, and kinetics models to better understand the physicochemical mechanisms driving the effective removal of the NB dye. The results reveal that Ag-rGO nanocomposite exhibit excellent adsorption ability as well as favorable thermodynamic and kinetic parameters for NB dye removal. It was also found that the presence of light enhanced the adsorptive removal of NB while using Ag-rGO as an adsorbent. The present study noted significant reusability of the Ag-rGO nanocomposite, likely due to minimal Ag leaching and/or the robust stability of the Ag-rGO. It is suggested that Ag-rGO-based hybrid materials could serve as promising candidates for efficiently adsorbing and catalytically removing various toxic pollutants from wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha
- Department
of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University
Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan
| | - Abbas Khan
- Department
of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University
Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan
- Energy,
Water and Environment Lab, College of Humanities and Sciences, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ubaid Ur Rahman
- Department
of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University
Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan
| | - Sadaf
- Department
of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University
Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Yaseen
- Department
of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University
Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan
| | - Rasha A. Abumousa
- Energy,
Water and Environment Lab, College of Humanities and Sciences, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rozina Khattak
- Department
of Chemistry, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women
University Avenue, Larama Charsadda Road Peshawar, Peshawar 00384,Pakistan
| | - Noor Rehman
- Department
of Chemistry, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Sheringal Dir(U), Dir Upper 18000,Pakistan
| | - Mohamed Bououdina
- Energy,
Water and Environment Lab, College of Humanities and Sciences, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Humayun
- Energy,
Water and Environment Lab, College of Humanities and Sciences, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia
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Khan AA, Khan A, Khan S, Shah N, Khan A, Nawaz F, Khalid A, Jan A, Al-Harrasi A. Preparation and characterization of sulphur and zinc oxide Co-doped graphitic carbon nitride for photo-assisted removal of Safranin-O dye. RSC Adv 2024; 14:8871-8884. [PMID: 38495991 PMCID: PMC10941262 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra07247a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Recently, there has been significant interest in photocatalytic reactions involving graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) due to its sp2-hybridized carbon and nitrogen content and it is an ideal candidate for blending with other materials to enhance performance. Here, we have synthesized and analyzed both doped and undoped g-C3N4 nanoparticles. Specifically, we co-doped sulfur (S) into g-C3N4, integrated it with ZnO particles, and investigated the photocatalytic potential of these nanocomposites to remove Safranin-O dye. The initial step involved the preparation of pure g-C3N4 through calcination of urea. Subsequently, S-g-C3N4 was synthesized by calcining a mixture of urea and thiourea with a 3 : 1 ratio. Finally, the ZnO-S-g-C3N4 composite was synthesized using the liquid exfoliation technique, with distilled water serving as the exfoliating solvent. These samples were characterized by advanced techniques, including UV-Vis spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), to assess their crystallinity, morphology, optical properties, and phase purity. Subsequently, these nanocomposites were employed in catalytic and photocatalytic processes to remove the Safranin-O dye (SO). The results highlighted the formation of Z-scheme junction responsible for ZnO-S-g-C3N4's significant performance improvement. The comparison of results demonstrated that S-g-C3N4 and ZnO-S-g-C3N4 composites revealed an effective removal of Safranin-O dye in the presence of UV-light as compared to pure g-C3N4, as it was attributed to the phenomenon of improved separation of photogenerated charge carriers as a result of heterojunction formation between S-g-C3N4 and ZnO interfaces. In addition to improving photocatalytic performance, this study presents a facile route for producing ZnO-S-g-C3N4 composite with superior adsorption capabilities and selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azmat Ali Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan 23200 KP Pakistan +92-937-542188 +92-3408467885
| | - Abbas Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan 23200 KP Pakistan +92-937-542188 +92-3408467885
| | - Sumayya Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan 23200 KP Pakistan +92-937-542188 +92-3408467885
| | - Nasrullah Shah
- Department of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan 23200 KP Pakistan +92-937-542188 +92-3408467885
| | - Ajmal Khan
- Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa PO Box 33, 616 Birkat Al Mauz Nizwa Oman
| | - Faheem Nawaz
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Life Sciences & Informatics, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences (BUITEMS) Quetta Pakistan
| | - Asaad Khalid
- Substance Abuse and Toxicology Research Center, Jazan University PO Box: 114 Jazan 45142 Saudi Arabia
| | - Afnan Jan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University Makkah Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Al-Harrasi
- Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa PO Box 33, 616 Birkat Al Mauz Nizwa Oman
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Yasmeen S, Burratti L, Duranti L, Sgreccia E, Prosposito P. Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants-Nile Blue, Methylene Blue, and Bentazon Herbicide-Using NiO-ZnO Nanocomposite. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 14:470. [PMID: 38470799 DOI: 10.3390/nano14050470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Water pollution poses a significant threat to both human health and ecosystem integrity. Chemical pollutants such as dyes and pesticides affect the water quality and endanger aquatic life. Among the methods for water purification from organic pollutants, photodegradation is certainly a valid technique to decrease such contaminants. In this work, pristine NiO, ZnO, and NiO-ZnO photocatalysts were synthesized by the homogeneous co-precipitation method. X-ray diffraction confirms the formation of a photocatalyst consisting of ZnO (Hexagonal) and NiO (Cubic) structures. The crystalline size was calculated by the Scherrer formula, which is 19 nm for the NiO-ZnO photocatalyst. The band gap measurements of the prepared samples were obtained using the Tauc Plot, equation which is 2.93 eV, 3.35 eV and 2.63 eV for NiO, ZnO, and NiO-ZnO photocatalysts, respectively. The photocatalytic performance of NiO-ZnO nanocomposite was evaluated through the degradation of Methylene Blue and Nile Blue dyes under sunlight, and Bentazon herbicide under a UV light. Photocatalyst degradation efficiency was 95% and 97% for Methylene Blue and Nile Blue in 220 min under sunlight while a degradation of 70% for Bentazon after 100 min under UV light source was found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadaf Yasmeen
- Industrial Engineering Department, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via del Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Burratti
- Department of Sciences, University of Roma Tre, Via della Vasca Navale 79, 00146 Rome, Italy
| | - Leonardo Duranti
- Department of Chemical Science and Technologies, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuela Sgreccia
- Industrial Engineering Department, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via del Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Prosposito
- Industrial Engineering Department, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via del Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
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Gautam P, De AK, Rao MD, Sinha I, Behera CK, Singh KK. Waste remediation: Low-temperature synthesis of hybrid Cu(OH) 2/CuO and CuO nanostructures from spent printed circuit boards and their dye degradation studies. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023:10.1007/s11356-023-29005-7. [PMID: 37542015 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-29005-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023]
Abstract
The demand for environmentally friendly and sustainable resource utilization techniques for recycling waste printed circuit boards is significant due to their status as valuable secondary resources, containing high-purity copper and precious metals. In this context, Cu(OH)2/CuO and CuO nanostructures were fabricated using alkaline precipitation and low-temperature aging methods using the strip solution originated from laboratory-scale spent mobile phone printed circuit board recovery process. XRD, FTIR, FESEM-EDX, and TEM were utilized to characterize the as-recovered nanoproducts. A hybrid structure of Cu(OH)2/CuO was formed at 70°, and monoclinic CuO phase was formed at 80 °C aging time. The results show that Cu(OH)2/CuO nanoflakes have an average crystallite size of 24.06 nm and a particle width of 22 ± 3 nm. Cu(OH)2/CuO nanoflakes formed at 70 °C aging temperature and 24-h residence time have finer crystallite and particle sizes than CuO-ridged nanospheres formed at 80 °C aging temperature. The optical band gap energy of Cu(OH)2/CuO and CuO nanostructures formed was found to be 2.28 eV and 2.22 eV, respectively. The hybrid Cu(OH)2/CuO nanostructure photocatalyzed the decomposed 97.28% rhodamine blue using a visible light source, whereas the CuO nanostructure degraded only 14.64% rhodamine blue dye under similar conditions. A surfactant-less hybrid structure is developed without the use of any chemical precursor. Thus, a high value-added product is produced using one waste material to remove another waste in wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pushpa Gautam
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi, Varanasi, 221005, India.
| | - Arup Kumar De
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | | | - Indrajit Sinha
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Chhail Kumar Behera
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Kamalesh Kumar Singh
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi, Varanasi, 221005, India
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Activation of Peracetic Acid with CuFe2O4 for Rhodamine B Degradation: Activation by Cu and the Contribution of Acetylperoxyl Radicals. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27196385. [PMID: 36234920 PMCID: PMC9571141 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27196385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) demonstrate great micropollutant degradation efficiency. In this study, CuFe2O4 was successfully used to activate peracetic acid (PAA) to remove Rhodamine B. Acetyl(per)oxyl radicals were the dominant species in this novel system. The addition of 2,4-hexadiene (2,4-HD) and Methanol (MeOH) significantly inhibited the degradation efficiency of Rhodamine B. The ≡Cu2+/≡Cu+ redox cycle dominated PAA activation, thereby producing organic radicals (R-O˙) including CH3C(O)O˙ and CH3C(O)OO˙, which accounted for the degradation of Rhodamine B. Increasing either the concentration of CuFe2O4 (0–100 mg/L) or PAA (10–100 mg/L) promoted the removal efficiency of this potent system. In addition, weakly acid to weakly alkali pH conditions (6–8) were suitable for pollutant removal. The addition of Humid acid (HA), HCO3−, and a small amount of Cl− (10–100 mmol·L−1) slightly inhibited the degradation of Rhodamine B. However, degradation was accelerated by the inclusion of high concentrations (200 mmol·L−1) of Cl−. After four iterations of catalyst recycling, the degradation efficiency remained stable and no additional functional group characteristic peaks were observed. Taking into consideration the reaction conditions, interfering substances, system stability, and pollutant-removal efficiency, the CuFe2O4/PAA system demonstrated great potential for the degradation of Rhodamine B.
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Comparative Study of SnO2 and ZnO Semiconductor Nanoparticles (Synthesized Using Randia echinocarpa) in the Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes. Symmetry (Basel) 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/sym14101970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Symmetry in nanomaterials is essential to know the behavior of their properties. In the present research, the photocatalytic properties of SnO2 and ZnO nanoparticles were compared for the degradation of the cationic dyes Methylene Blue (MB) and Rhodamine B (RB). The nanoparticles were obtained through a green synthesis process assisted by Randia echinocarpa extracts; they were then analyzed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) to characterize their structure. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to identify the morphology and disclose nanoparticle size, and the optical properties were studied through Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis). The results show that the synthesized SnO2 and ZnO nanomaterials have quasispherical morphologies with average sizes of 8–12 and 4–6 nm, cassiterite and wurtzite crystal phases, and band gap values of 3.5 and 3.8 eV, respectively. The photocatalytic activity yielded 100% degradation of the MB and RB dyes in 210 and 150 min, respectively. ZnO performed higher photocatalytic degradation of the cationic dyes than SnO2 due to a higher content of Randia echinocarpa extracts remaining after the green synthesis process.
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