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Hamze M, Brier C, Buhler E, Zhang J, Medina I, Porcher C. Regulation of Neuronal Chloride Homeostasis by Pro- and Mature Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) via KCC2 Cation-Chloride Cotransporters in Rat Cortical Neurons. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6253. [PMID: 38892438 PMCID: PMC11172813 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The strength of inhibitory neurotransmission depends on intracellular neuronal chloride concentration, primarily regulated by the activity of cation-chloride cotransporters NKCC1 (Sodium-Potassium-Chloride Cotransporter 1) and KCC2 (Potassium-Chloride Cotransporter 2). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) influences the functioning of these co-transporters. BDNF is synthesized from precursor proteins (proBDNF), which undergo proteolytic cleavage to yield mature BDNF (mBDNF). While previous studies have indicated the involvement of BDNF signaling in the activity of KCC2, its specific mechanisms are unclear. We investigated the interplay between both forms of BDNF and chloride homeostasis in rat hippocampal neurons and in utero electroporated cortices of rat pups, spanning the behavioral, cellular, and molecular levels. We found that both pro- and mBDNF play a comparable role in immature neurons by inhibiting the capacity of neurons to extrude chloride. Additionally, proBDNF increases the endocytosis of KCC2 while maintaining a depolarizing shift of EGABA in maturing neurons. Behaviorally, proBDNF-electroporated rat pups in the somatosensory cortex exhibit sensory deficits, delayed huddling, and cliff avoidance. These findings emphasize the role of BDNF signaling in regulating chloride transport through the modulation of KCC2. In summary, this study provides valuable insights into the intricate interplay between BDNF, chloride homeostasis, and inhibitory synaptic transmission, shedding light on the underlying cellular mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Hamze
- INMED, INSERM, Aix-Marseille University, 13273 Marseille, France; (M.H.); (C.B.); (E.B.); (I.M.)
- INSERM (Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale), Unité 1249, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
- INMED (Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée), Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
| | - Cathy Brier
- INMED, INSERM, Aix-Marseille University, 13273 Marseille, France; (M.H.); (C.B.); (E.B.); (I.M.)
- INSERM (Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale), Unité 1249, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
- INMED (Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée), Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
| | - Emmanuelle Buhler
- INMED, INSERM, Aix-Marseille University, 13273 Marseille, France; (M.H.); (C.B.); (E.B.); (I.M.)
- INSERM (Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale), Unité 1249, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
- INMED (Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée), Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
| | - Jinwei Zhang
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Ling Ling Road, Shanghai 200032, China;
| | - Igor Medina
- INMED, INSERM, Aix-Marseille University, 13273 Marseille, France; (M.H.); (C.B.); (E.B.); (I.M.)
- INSERM (Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale), Unité 1249, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
- INMED (Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée), Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
| | - Christophe Porcher
- INMED, INSERM, Aix-Marseille University, 13273 Marseille, France; (M.H.); (C.B.); (E.B.); (I.M.)
- INSERM (Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale), Unité 1249, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
- INMED (Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée), Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13273 Marseille, France
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Cho S, Soumare F, Mumford SL, Rosas PC, Abrieva Z, Davis JM, Hamidovic A. Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Expression of Cation-Chloride Cotransporter (CCC) Genes in Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) across the Menstrual Cycle-A Preliminary Study. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:377. [PMID: 38927257 PMCID: PMC11201072 DOI: 10.3390/biology13060377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) is a psychiatric condition characterized by debilitating affective symptomatology in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Based on the previous reports that PMDD may be related to GABAergic cellular dysfunction(s), we assessed whether cation-chloride cotransporter (CCC) gene expression across the menstrual cycle is altered in PMDD. As there are limitations in accessing the human CNS to study CCC-encoding genes, we utilized peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) as an alternative model. We first sought to replicate previous reports characterizing CCC gene expression patterns in PBMCs of reproductive age women. We subsequently investigated potential distinct CCC mRNA expression patterns in women with PMDD. We collected blood samples across 8 menstrual cycle visits for PBMC separation/RNA extraction to study mRNA expression of four KCCs (KCC1, KCC2, KCC3, KCC4) and two NKCCs (NKCC1, NKCC2) cotransporters. We mostly replicated the earlier gene expression pattern findings, and found that the expression levels of KCC1 were significantly downregulated during the mid-follicular and periovulatory subphases of the menstrual cycle in women with PMDD. The present study shows that PBMCs is a valid model for studying GABAergic mechanisms underlying PMDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soojeong Cho
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (S.C.); (F.S.); (P.C.R.)
| | - Fatimata Soumare
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (S.C.); (F.S.); (P.C.R.)
| | - Sunni L. Mumford
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
| | - Paola C. Rosas
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (S.C.); (F.S.); (P.C.R.)
| | - Zarema Abrieva
- Genomics Research Core, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA;
| | - John M. Davis
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA;
| | - Ajna Hamidovic
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (S.C.); (F.S.); (P.C.R.)
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3
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Nascimento AA, Pereira-Figueiredo D, Borges-Martins VP, Kubrusly RC, Calaza KC. GABAergic system and chloride cotransporters as potential therapeutic targets to mitigate cell death in ischemia. J Neurosci Res 2024; 102:e25355. [PMID: 38808645 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a critical inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system that plays a vital role in modulating neuronal excitability. Dysregulation of GABAergic signaling, particularly involving the cotransporters NKCC1 and KCC2, has been implicated in various pathologies, including epilepsy, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, Down syndrome, and ischemia. NKCC1 facilitates chloride influx, whereas KCC2 mediates chloride efflux via potassium gradient. Altered expression and function of these cotransporters have been associated with excitotoxicity, inflammation, and cellular death in ischemic events characterized by reduced cerebral blood flow, leading to compromised tissue metabolism and subsequent cell death. NKCC1 inhibition has emerged as a potential therapeutic approach to attenuate intracellular chloride accumulation and mitigate neuronal damage during ischemic events. Similarly, targeting KCC2, which regulates chloride efflux, holds promise for improving outcomes and reducing neuronal damage under ischemic conditions. This review emphasizes the critical roles of GABA, NKCC1, and KCC2 in ischemic pathologies and their potential as therapeutic targets. Inhibiting or modulating the activity of these cotransporters represents a promising strategy for reducing neuronal damage, preventing excitotoxicity, and improving neurological outcomes following ischemic events. Furthermore, exploring the interactions between natural compounds and NKCC1/KCC2 provides additional avenues for potential therapeutic interventions for ischemic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Nascimento
- Neurobiology of the Retina Laboratory, Department of Neurobiology and Graduate Program of Neurosciences, Institute of Biology, Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
| | - D Pereira-Figueiredo
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences (Physiology and Pharmacology), Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
| | - V P Borges-Martins
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Biomedical Institute, Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
| | - R C Kubrusly
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Biomedical Institute, Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
| | - K C Calaza
- Neurobiology of the Retina Laboratory, Department of Neurobiology and Graduate Program of Neurosciences, Institute of Biology, Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences (Physiology and Pharmacology), Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
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Sharma M, Pal P, Gupta SK. The neurotransmitter puzzle of Alzheimer's: Dissecting mechanisms and exploring therapeutic horizons. Brain Res 2024; 1829:148797. [PMID: 38342422 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2024.148797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) represents a complex interplay of neurological pathways and molecular mechanisms, with significant impacts on patients' lives. This review synthesizes the latest developments in AD research, focusing on both the scientific advancements and their clinical implications. We examine the role of microglia in AD, highlighting their contribution to the disease's inflammatory aspects. The cholinergic hypothesis, a cornerstone of AD research, is re-evaluated, including the role of Alpha-7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in disease progression. This review places particular emphasis on the neurotransmission systems, exploring the therapeutic potential of GABAergic neurotransmitters and the role of NMDA inhibitors in the context of glutamatergic neurotransmission. By analyzing the interactions and implications of neurotransmitter pathways in AD, we aim to shed light on emerging therapeutic strategies. In addition to molecular insights, the review addresses the clinical and personal aspects of AD, underscoring the need for patient-centered approaches in treatment and care. The final section looks at the future directions of AD research and treatment, discussing the integration of scientific innovation with patient care. This review aims to provide a comprehensive update on AD, merging scientific insights with practical considerations, suitable for both specialists and those new to the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Sharma
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology, Swami Vivekanand Subharti University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Pankaj Pal
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India
| | - Sukesh Kumar Gupta
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, USA.
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Mucke HAM. Drug Repurposing Patent Applications October-December 2023. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2024; 22:160-167. [PMID: 38437578 DOI: 10.1089/adt.2024.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
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Zhang HL, Hu S, Qu ST, Lv MD, Wang JJ, Liu XT, Yao JH, Ding YY, Xu GY. Inhibition of NKCC1 Ameliorates Anxiety and Autistic Behaviors Induced by Maternal Immune Activation in Mice. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2024; 46:1851-1864. [PMID: 38534737 DOI: 10.3390/cimb46030121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is thought to result from susceptibility genotypes and environmental risk factors. The offspring of women who experience pregnancy infection have an increased risk for autism. Maternal immune activation (MIA) in pregnant animals produces offspring with autistic behaviors, making MIA a useful model for autism. However, how MIA causes autistic behaviors in offspring is not fully understood. Here, we show that NKCC1 is critical for mediating autistic behaviors in MIA offspring. We confirmed that MIA induced by poly(I:C) infection during pregnancy leads to autistic behaviors in offspring. We further demonstrated that MIA offspring showed significant microglia activation, excessive dendritic spines, and narrow postsynaptic density (PSD) in their prefrontal cortex (PFC). Then, we discovered that these abnormalities may be caused by overexpression of NKCC1 in MIA offspring's PFCs. Finally, we ameliorated the autistic behaviors using PFC microinjection of NKCC1 inhibitor bumetanide (BTN) in MIA offspring. Our findings may shed new light on the pathological mechanisms for autism caused by pregnancy infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Long Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Shufen Hu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Shu-Ting Qu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Meng-Dan Lv
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Jun-Jun Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Xin-Ting Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Jia-He Yao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yi-Yan Ding
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Guang-Yin Xu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
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Abstract
Rett syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by loss-of-function mutations in the methyl-CpG binding protein-2 (MeCP2) gene that is characterized by epilepsy, intellectual disability, autistic features, speech deficits, and sleep and breathing abnormalities. Neurologically, patients with all three disorders display microcephaly, aberrant dendritic morphology, reduced spine density, and an imbalance of excitatory/inhibitory signaling. Loss-of-function mutations in the cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (CDKL5) and FOXG1 genes also cause similar behavioral and neurobiological defects and were referred to as congenital or variant Rett syndrome. The relatively recent realization that CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD), FOXG1 syndrome, and Rett syndrome are distinct neurodevelopmental disorders with some distinctive features have resulted in separate focus being placed on each disorder with the assumption that distinct molecular mechanisms underlie their pathogenesis. However, given that many of the core symptoms and neurological features are shared, it is likely that the disorders share some critical molecular underpinnings. This review discusses the possibility that deregulation of common molecules in neurons and astrocytes plays a central role in key behavioral and neurological abnormalities in all three disorders. These include KCC2, a chloride transporter, vGlut1, a vesicular glutamate transporter, GluD1, an orphan-glutamate receptor subunit, and PSD-95, a postsynaptic scaffolding protein. We propose that reduced expression or activity of KCC2, vGlut1, PSD-95, and AKT, along with increased expression of GluD1, is involved in the excitatory/inhibitory that represents a key aspect in all three disorders. In addition, astrocyte-derived brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and inflammatory cytokines likely affect the expression and functioning of these molecules resulting in disease-associated abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh R D’Mello
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71104, USA
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Bonet-Fernández JM, Tranque P, Aroca-Aguilar JD, Muñoz LJ, López DE, Escribano J, de Cabo C. Seizures regulate the cation-Cl - cotransporter NKCC1 in a hamster model of epilepsy: implications for GABA neurotransmission. Front Neurol 2023; 14:1207616. [PMID: 37448751 PMCID: PMC10338185 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1207616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The balance between the activity of the Na+/K+/Cl- cotransporter (NKCC1) that introduces Cl- into the cell and the K+/Cl- cotransporter (KCC2) that transports Cl- outside the cell is critical in determining the inhibitory or excitatory outcome of GABA release. Mounting evidence suggests that the impairment of GABAergic inhibitory neurotransmission plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of epilepsy, both in patients and animal models. Previous studies indicate that decreased KCC2 expression is linked to audiogenic seizures in GASH/Sal hamsters, highlighting that Cl- imbalance can cause neuronal hyperexcitability. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether the Na+/K+/Cl- cotransporter NKCC1 is also affected by audiogenic seizures and could, therefore, play a role in neuronal hyperexcitability within the GASH/Sal epilepsy model. Methods NKCC1 protein expression in both the GASH/Sal strain and wild type hamsters was analyzed by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting techniques. Brain regions examined included cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, inferior colliculus and pons-medulla oblongata, which were evaluated both at rest and after sound-inducing seizures in GASH/Sal hamsters. A complementary analysis of NKCC1 gene slc12a2 expression was conducted by real-time PCR. Finally, protein and mRNA levels of glutamate decarboxylase GAD67 were measured as an indicator of GABA release. Results The induction of seizures caused significant changes in NKCC1 expression in epileptic GASH/Sal hamsters, despite the similar brain expression pattern of NKCC1 in GASH/Sal and wild type hamsters in the absence of seizures. Interestingly, the regulation of brain NKCC1 by seizures demonstrated regional specificity, as protein levels exclusively increased in the hippocampus and hypothalamus. Complementary real-time PCR analysis revealed that NKCC1 regulation was post-transcriptional only in the hypothalamus. In addition, seizures also modulated GAD67 mRNA levels in a brain region-specific manner. The increased GAD67 expression in the hippocampus and hypothalamus of the epileptic hamster brain suggests that NKCC1 upregulation overlaps with GABA release in these regions during seizures. Conclusions Our results indicate that seizure induction causes dysregulation of NKCC1 expression in GASH/Sal animals, which overlaps with changes in GABA release. These observations provide evidence for the critical role of NKCC1 in how seizures affect neuronal excitability, and support NKCC1 contribution to the development of secondary foci of epileptogenic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan-Manuel Bonet-Fernández
- Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Research Department, Albacete General Hospital, Albacete, Spain
- Biomedical Instrumentation Service, Faculty of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - Pedro Tranque
- Biomedical Instrumentation Service, Faculty of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
- Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - Jose Daniel Aroca-Aguilar
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medicine/Instituto de Investigación en Discapacidades Neurológicas (IDINE), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - Luis J. Muñoz
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Dolores E. López
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Julio Escribano
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medicine/Instituto de Investigación en Discapacidades Neurológicas (IDINE), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - Carlos de Cabo
- Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Research Department, Albacete General Hospital, Albacete, Spain
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Fogarty MJ. Inhibitory Synaptic Influences on Developmental Motor Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24086962. [PMID: 37108127 PMCID: PMC10138861 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24086962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
During development, GABA and glycine play major trophic and synaptic roles in the establishment of the neuromotor system. In this review, we summarise the formation, function and maturation of GABAergic and glycinergic synapses within neuromotor circuits during development. We take special care to discuss the differences in limb and respiratory neuromotor control. We then investigate the influences that GABAergic and glycinergic neurotransmission has on two major developmental neuromotor disorders: Rett syndrome and spastic cerebral palsy. We present these two syndromes in order to contrast the approaches to disease mechanism and therapy. While both conditions have motor dysfunctions at their core, one condition Rett syndrome, despite having myriad symptoms, has scientists focused on the breathing abnormalities and their alleviation-to great clinical advances. By contrast, cerebral palsy remains a scientific quagmire or poor definitions, no widely adopted model and a lack of therapeutic focus. We conclude that the sheer abundance of diversity of inhibitory neurotransmitter targets should provide hope for intractable conditions, particularly those that exhibit broad spectra of dysfunction-such as spastic cerebral palsy and Rett syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Fogarty
- Department of Physiology & Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55902, USA
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