Caffeine Intake During Pregnancy and Neonatal Anthropometric Parameters

The neuroprotective effect of exogen melatonin upon fetal hippocampus damage caused by high-dose caffeine administration in pregnant rats

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to evaluate whether exogenous melatonin (MEL) mitigates the deleterious effects of high-dose caffeine (CAF) administration in pregnant rats upon the fetal hippocampus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 32 adult Wistar albino female rats were divided into four groups after conception (n = 8). At 9-20 days of pregnancy, intraperitoneal (i.p.) MEL was administered at a dose of 10 mg/kg/day in the MEL group, while i.p. CAF was administered at a dose of 60 mg/kg/day in the CAF group. In the CAF plus MEL group, i.p. CAF and MEL were administered at a dose of 60 and 10 mg/kg/day, respectively, at the same period. Following extraction of the brains of the fetuses sacrificed on the 21st day of pregnancy, their hippocampal regions were analyzed by hematoxylin and eosin and Cresyl Echt Violet, anti-GFAP, and antisynaptophysin staining methods.

RESULTS

While there was a decrease in fetal and brain weights in the CAF group, it was found that the CAF plus MEL group had a closer weight average to that of the control group. Histologically, it was observed that the pyramidal cell layer consisted of 8-10 layers of cells due to the delay in migration in hippocampal neurons in the CAF group, while the MEL group showed similar characteristics with the control group. It was found that these findings decreased in the CAF plus MEL group.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that high-dose CAF administration causes a delay in neurogenesis of the fetal hippocampus, and exogenous MEL is able to mitigate its deleterious effects.

Assessment of caffeine intake in groups of pregnant and breastfeeding women: A cross-sectional analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Caffeine is commonly consumed by pregnant and breastfeeding women. The maximum safe dose of caffeine in their diet is 200 mg per day, according to the European Food Safety Authority. The purpose of this study was to assess the consumption of caffeinated products by pregnant and breastfeeding women, as well as to estimate their caffeine intake.

METHODS

The number of subjects who qualified for the study was 1112 women, of whom 401 were pregnant and 711 were breastfeeding. The research was conducted with the use of a questionnaire, which included information about food frequency and history of consumption of caffeinated products during the past 3 days.

RESULTS

The median (interquartile range) daily caffeine intake among pregnant women was 114.5 (57.6-202.8) mg, and the level of caffeine intake increased with the duration of pregnancy (p < 0.001). For breastfeeding women it was 193.7 (100.5-324.8) mg/d. The majority of participants (58.9%) were not able to correctly identify the safe amount of caffeine in their diets. It was observed that the intake of 73.8% of pregnant women and 51.9% of breastfeeding women fit within the safe range (0-200 mg/d). The main sources of caffeine were ground coffee, black tea, and instant coffee. For 63,6% of women knowledge about nutrition and supplementation came most often from blogs and social media run by medical professionals. Pleasure was the main reason for drinking coffee and tea.

CONCLUSION

Most pregnant women did not exceed the recommended maximum daily dose of caffeine, while breastfeeding women often did.

Maternal consumption of caffeine and second-hand tobacco smoke as risk factors for the development of oral clefts

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this case-control study was to investigate environmental factors, such as caffeine, folic acid, nutritional iron supplementation, multivitamin complexes, alcohol, and tobacco (second-hand smoking), which have been described as risk factors for the development of oral clefts.

METHODS

This case-control study employed convenience sampling and included 409 mothers: 132 with children with oral clefts (cases) and 277 with children without oral clefts (controls). The age range of the children in both groups was 0 to 2 years. A questionnaire was administered to each mother to inquire about their habits and food consumption during the first trimester of pregnancy.

RESULTS

Folic acid supplementation was observed in 116 (87.8%) of the case group (p < 0.001) and 271 (97.8%) of the control group. Regarding the use of ferrous sulfate, 114 (86.3%) of the case group and 271 (97.8%) of the control group reported using it. In the case group, 84 (63.6%) mothers reported being exposed to second-hand smoke, and 5 (3.7%) reported alcohol consumption (p = 0.797). In terms of caffeine consumption, 127 mothers (95.4%) in the case group consumed it (p = 0.13), while 247 (88.8%) reported consumption in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest a direct relationship between secondhand smoke, alcohol consumption, and the lack of maternal supplementation with oral clefts.

Caffeine Intake throughout Pregnancy, and Factors Associated with Non-Compliance with Recommendations: A Cohort Study

Maternal caffeine consumption is associated with adverse gestational outcomes. The aim of this study was to assess the intake of caffeine and factors associated with the non-adherence to caffeine intake recommendations in a cohort of 463 women before (T0) and in each trimester of gestation (T1, T2, and T3), by using validated questionnaires. Caffeine intake (median (mg/day), IQR) was 100.0 (181.1) at T0, 9.42 (66.2) at T1, 12.5 (65.6) at T2, and 14.0 (61.1) at T3 (p < 0.001). Non-compliance prevalence (intake > 200 mg/day) was 6.2% at T1, 4.2% at T2, and 2.7% at T3. Not being an active smoker at T1 (OR = 0.17; 95% CI 0.05−0.59) and T2 (OR = 0.22; 95% CI 0.09−0.52), adherence to the Mediterranean Diet at T1 (OR = 0.50; 95% CI 0.28−0.88) and T2 (OR = 0.39; 95% CI 0.15−1.02), and moderate physical activity at T1 (OR = 0.50; 95% CI 0.28−0.88) were inversely associated with caffeine consumption. Although caffeine intake may be considered low, intake prevalence increases throughout pregnancy. Although the main source of caffeine during pregnancy is coffee, attention must be also paid to the increasingly intake of chocolate, of which the effect during pregnancy is controversial. Smoking, non-adherence to a good quality diet, and light physical activity are associated with a higher caffeine intake and a lower compliance with caffeine intake recommendations. Perinatal dietary and lifestyle educational policies are needed.

Relationship between maternal caffeine and coffee intake and pregnancy loss: A grading of recommendations assessment, development, and evaluation-assessed, dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies

Background

Numerous studies report an association between coffee or caffeine consumption and pregnancy loss; however, the nature and strength of this relationship have not been clearly established. Based on recent studies, our meta-analysis aimed to test whether a dose-response relationship between coffee or caffeine consumption and pregnancy loss exists.

Methods

We searched for articles in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus published until May 2022. Two independent reviewers extracted data and rated the quality of the evidence using the GRADE approach. We applied a random-effects, one-stage dose-response meta-analysis.

Results

A total of 34 articles (18 cohort studies and 16 case-control studies) were included in this review. Results showed a significantly higher risk of pregnancy loss for coffee consumption before (Pooled ES: 1.21; 95% CI: 1.01-1.43) and during pregnancy (Pooled ES: 1.26; 95% CI: 1.04-1.57), and for coffee consumption during pregnancy in case-control studies (Pooled ES: 1.20; 95% CI: 1.19-6.41). Findings from this meta-analysis demonstrated that caffeine intake during pregnancy was associated with a significantly higher risk of pregnancy loss in cohort (Pooled ES: 1.58; 95% CI: 1.23-2.01) and case-control studies (Pooled ES: 2.39; 95% CI: 1.69-3.37, P < 0.001), respectively. A dose-response analysis suggested that an increase of a cup of coffee per day during pregnancy was associated with 3% increased risk of pregnancy loss; 100 mg of caffeine per day during pregnancy was also associated with 14 and 26% increased risk of pregnancy loss in cohort and case-control studies, respectively. A non-linear dose-response association was observed between coffee intake and the risk of pregnancy loss.

Conclusion

This study confirms that coffee or caffeine consumption raises the risk of pregnancy loss. Researchers are encouraged to conduct more studies to explore the underlying mechanisms and active compounds in coffee and caffeine.

Systematic Review Registration

[www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/], identifier [CRD42021267731].

Differential expression of placental 11β-HSD2 induced by high maternal glucocorticoid exposure mediates sex differences in placental and fetal development

A variety of adverse environmental factors during pregnancy cause maternal chronic stress. Caffeine is a common stressor, and its consumption during pregnancy is widespread. Our previous study showed that prenatal caffeine exposure (PCE) increased maternal blood glucocorticoid levels and caused abnormal development of offspring. However, the placental mechanism for fetal development inhibition caused by PCE-induced high maternal glucocorticoid has not been reported. This study investigated the effects of PCE-induced high maternal glucocorticoid level on placental and fetal development by regulating placental 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2 (11β-HSD2) expression and its underlying mechanism. First, human placenta and umbilical cord blood samples were collected from women without prenatal use of synthetic glucocorticoids. We found that placental 11β-HSD2 expression was significantly correlated with umbilical cord blood cortisol level and birth weight in male newborns but not in females. Furthermore, we established a rat model of high maternal glucocorticoids induced by PCE (caffeine, 60 mg/kg·d, ig), and found that the expression of 11β-HSD2 in male PCE placenta was decreased and negatively correlated with the maternal/fetal/placental corticosterone levels. Meanwhile, we found abnormal placental structure and nutrient transporter expression. In vitro, BeWo cells were used and confirm that 11β-HSD2 mediated inhibition of placental nutrient transporter expression induced by high levels of glucocorticoid. Finally, combined with the animal and cell experiments, we further confirmed that high maternal glucocorticoid could activate the GR-C/EBPα-Egr1 signaling pathway, leading to decreased expression of 11β-HSD2 in males. However, there was no significant inhibition of placental 11β-HSD2 expression, placental and fetal development in females. In summary, we confirmed that high maternal glucocorticoids could regulate placental 11β-HSD2 expression in a sex-specific manner, leading to differences in placental and fetal development. This study provides the theoretical and experimental basis for analyzing the inhibition of fetoplacental development and its sex difference caused by maternal stress.

Self-Care Mobile Application for South Korean Pregnant Women at Work: Development and Usability Study

Background

Pregnant women at work often encounter barriers to participating in prenatal education or conducting appropriate self-care practices due to their working conditions.

Purpose

We aimed at developing a mobile-based intervention application (SPWW) for Korean pregnant women at work and testing its usability and preliminary effects to enhance their self-care practices.

Patients and Methods

The application was developed and tested with thirty-one pregnant women at work and thirteen women's healthcare providers. The instruments used in this study were a modified Health Practices in Pregnancy Questionnaire II and a System Usability Scale. Descriptive analyses and t-tests were performed using SPSS 25.0. The participants' open-ended answers were analyzed using ATLAS. ti 8.

Results

We developed the application focusing on four self-care topics: healthy diet, physical activity, sufficient rest, and stress management. After using the application for two weeks, participants' levels of exercise (p = 0.006), adequate fluid intake (p = 0.002), and limiting daily caffeine intake (p = 0.048) significantly improved. In addition to good usability scores, the suggestions for improvement made by the participants included diversifying the educational materials and adding individually customizable functions to the application.

Conclusion

The application developed in this study enhanced self-care practices of pregnant women at work and showed adequate levels of usability. We expect the developmental process and details of the application provided in this study to serve as a sample guide for future studies.

P-gp expression inhibition mediates placental glucocorticoid barrier opening and fetal weight loss

BACKGROUND

Prenatal adverse environments can cause fetal intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) and higher susceptibility to multiple diseases after birth, related to multi-organ development programming changes mediated by intrauterine overexposure to maternal glucocorticoids. As a glucocorticoid barrier, P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is highly expressed in placental syncytiotrophoblasts; however, the effect of P-gp on the occurrence of IUGR remains unclear.

METHODS

Human placenta and fetal cord blood samples of IUGR fetuses were collected, and the related indexes were detected. Pregnant Wistar rats were administered with 30 mg/kg·d (low dose) and 120 mg/kg·d (high dose) caffeine from gestational day (GD) 9 to 20 to construct the rat IUGR model. Pregnant mice were administered with caffeine (120 mg/kg·d) separately or combined with sodium ferulate (50 mg/kg·d) from gestational day GD 9 to 18 to confirm the intervention target on fetal weight loss caused by prenatal caffeine exposure (PCE). The fetal serum/placental corticosterone level, placental P-gp expression, and related indicator changes were analyzed. In vitro, primary human trophoblasts and BeWo cells were used to confirm the effect of caffeine on P-gp and its mechanism.

RESULTS

The placental P-gp expression was significantly reduced, but the umbilical cord blood cortisol level was increased in clinical samples of the IUGR neonates, which were positively and negatively correlated with the neonatal birth weight, respectively. Meanwhile, in the PCE-induced IUGR rat model, the placental P-gp expression of IUGR rats was decreased while the corticosterone levels of the placentas/fetal blood were increased, which were positively and negatively correlated with the decreased placental/fetal weights, respectively. Combined with the PCE-induced IUGR rat model, in vitro caffeine-treated placental trophoblasts, we confirmed that caffeine decreased the histone acetylation and expression of P-gp via RYR/JNK/YB-1/P300 pathway, which inhibited placental and fetal development. We further demonstrated that P-gp inducer sodium ferulate could reverse the inhibitory effect of caffeine on the fetal body/placental weight. Finally, clinical specimens and other animal models of IUGR also confirmed that the JNK/YB-1 pathway is a co-regulatory mechanism of P-gp expression inhibition, among which the expression of YB-1 is the most stable. Therefore, we proposed that YB-1 could be used as the potential early warning target for the opening of the placental glucocorticoid barrier, the occurrence of IUGR, and the susceptibility of a variety of diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

This study, for the first time, clarified the critical role and epigenetic regulation mechanism of P-gp in mediating the opening mechanism of the placental glucocorticoid barrier, providing a novel idea for exploring the early warning, prevention, and treatment strategies of IUGR.

Potential role of tea extract in oocyte development

Tea is the second most popular beverage in the world and beneficial to health. It has been demonstrated that tea polyphenols can reduce the risk of diseases, such as cancers, diabetes, obesity, Alzheimer's disease, etc. But the knowledge of tea extract on the female germline is limited. Folliculogenesis is a complicated process and prone to be affected by ROS. Tea polyphenols can reduce the accumulation of ROS in folliculogenesis and affect oocyte maturation. Tea extract also influences granulosa cell proliferation and expansion during oocyte growth and maturation. However, the studies about the benefits of tea extract on female germline are few, and the underlying mechanisms are obscure. In the present study, we will mainly discuss the effects of tea extract on ovarian function, oocyte maturation, and the underlying possible mechanisms, and according to the discussion, we suggest that tea extract may have benefits for oocytes at an appropriate dose.

Caffeine use during pregnancy: prevalence of use and newborn consequences in a cohort of French pregnant women

Many pregnant women, in the world, drink caffeine-containing beverages. Maternal caffeine consumption during pregnancy may have adverse effects on foetus but results are conflicting. Our goals were to estimate the prevalence of caffeine use in a cohort of French pregnant women using maternal self-reports and to evaluate the association between caffeine consumption during pregnancy and delivery and newborn characteristics. All pregnant women who gave birth in a large French urban area during a limited period of time were included (in total 724 mothers were included). Coffee, tea or cola consumption as well as pregnancy and neonate characteristics were analysed. The mean consumption of caffeine per day slightly decreased from the first to the third trimester of pregnancy: 587 caffeine users, with a consumption of caffeine of 59.2 ± 61.5 mg/day during the first trimester as compared to 577 consumers (54.3 ± 55.4 mg/day) during the third trimester, respectively. A significant decrease of neonates' birth length was observed when mothers were using at least 100 mg/day (or two cups) of caffeine during the second and third trimesters but this difference was no longer significant after adjustment on potential confounding factors such as tobacco use. The potential existence of other confounders (e.g. poorer dietary habits or other lifestyle variables) that might also be associated with reduced birth length, may not be excluded. Caffeine use during pregnancy was associated with reduced birth length but this effect was no longer significant after adjustment on potential confounding variables.

Green and white teas as health-promoting foods

Tea is one of the most consumed beverages around the world and as such, it is constantly the object of novel research. This review focuses on the research performed during the last five years to provide an updated view of the current position of tea regarding human health. According to most authors, tea health benefits can be traced back to its bioactive components, mostly phenolic compounds. Among them, catechins are the most abundant. Tea has an important antioxidant capacity and anti-inflammatory properties, which make this beverage (or its extracts) a potential aid in the fight against several chronic diseases. On the other hand, some studies report the possibility of toxic effects and it is advisable to reduce tea consumption, such as in the last trimester of pregnancy. Additionally, new technologies are increasing researchers' possibilities to study the effect of tea on human gut microbiota and even against SARS CoV-2. This beverage favours some beneficial gut microbes, which could have important repercussions due to the influence of gut microbiota on human health.

Association Between Maternal Caffeine Consumption and Metabolism and Neonatal Anthropometry: A Secondary Analysis of the NICHD Fetal Growth Studies-Singletons

IMPORTANCE

Higher caffeine consumption during pregnancy has been associated with lower birth weight. However, associations of caffeine consumption, based on both plasma concentrations of caffeine and its metabolites, and self-reported caffeinated beverage intake, with multiple measures of neonatal anthropometry, have yet to be examined.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between maternal caffeine intake and neonatal anthropometry, testing effect modification by fast or slow caffeine metabolism genotype.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A longitudinal cohort study, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Fetal Growth Studies-Singletons, enrolled 2055 nonsmoking women at low risk for fetal growth abnormalities with complete information on caffeine consumption from 12 US clinical sites between 2009 and 2013. Secondary analysis was completed in 2020.

EXPOSURES

Caffeine was evaluated by both plasma concentrations of caffeine and paraxanthine and self-reported caffeinated beverage consumption measured/reported at 10-13 weeks gestation. Caffeine metabolism defined as fast or slow using genotype information from the single nucleotide variant rs762551 (CYP1A2*1F).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Neonatal anthropometric measures, including birth weight, length, and head, abdominal, arm, and thigh circumferences, skin fold and fat mass measures. The β coefficients represent the change in neonatal anthropometric measure per SD change in exposure.

RESULTS

A total of 2055 participants had a mean (SD) age of 28.3 (5.5) years, mean (SD) body mass index of 23.6 (3.0), and 580 (28.2%) were Hispanic, 562 (27.4%) were White, 518 (25.2%) were Black, and 395 (19.2%) were Asian/Pacific Islander. Delivery occurred at a mean (SD) of 39.2 (1.7) gestational weeks. Compared with the first quartile of plasma caffeine level (≤28 ng/mL), neonates of women in the fourth quartile (>659 ng/mL) had lower birth weight (β = -84.3 g; 95% CI, -145.9 to -22.6 g; P = .04 for trend), length (β = -0.44 cm; 95% CI, -0.78 to -0.12 cm; P = .04 for trend), and head (β = -0.28 cm; 95% CI, -0.47 to -0.09 cm; P < .001 for trend), arm (β = -0.25 cm; 95% CI, -0.41 to -0.09 cm: P = .02 for trend), and thigh (β = -0.29 cm; 95% CI, -0.58 to -0.04 cm; P = .07 for trend) circumference. Similar reductions were observed for paraxanthine quartiles, and for continuous measures of caffeine and paraxanthine concentrations. Compared with women who reported drinking no caffeinated beverages, women who consumed approximately 50 mg per day (~ 1/2 cup of coffee) had neonates with lower birth weight (β = -66 g; 95% CI, -121 to -10 g), smaller arm (β = -0.17 cm; 95% CI, -0.31 to -0.02 cm) and thigh (β = -0.32 cm; 95% CI, -0.55 to -0.09 cm) circumference, and smaller anterior flank skin fold (β = -0.24 mm; 95% CI, -0.47 to -0.01 mm). Results did not differ by fast or slow caffeine metabolism genotype.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this cohort study, small reductions in neonatal anthropometric measurements with increasing caffeine consumption were observed. Findings suggest that caffeine consumption during pregnancy, even at levels much lower than the recommended 200 mg per day of caffeine, are associated with decreased fetal growth.

The Association Between Coffee and Tea Consumption During Pregnancy and Preterm Delivery: Case-Control Study

Objective

To assess a possible association between coffee and tea consumption and preterm delivery.

Methods

A case-control design was implemented on a sample of women who were admitted for delivery to a tertiary hospital in the north of Jordan. Three hundred and fourteen cases and 796 controls were evaluated. The study was conducted while women were in the hospital for delivery. They were questioned about coffee and tea consumption and relevant confounding factors. Women were asked to state the average number of coffee and tea cups they drank per day.

Results

The mean coffee consumption among women with preterm delivery was 0.75 cups/day ±1.23 and the mean tea consumption was 1.47 cups/day± 1.76. Multivariable logistic analysis revealed that increased age (OR=1.05; CI=1.02-1.08), parity (OR=3.82, CI=2.58-5.64), history of abortions (OR=1.69; CI=1.21-2.35), family history of preterm deliveries (OR=2.45, CI=1.33-4.52), having treatment for subfertility (OR=12.14, CI=2.39-61.62), diabetes mellitus (OR=2.22, CI=1.06-4.66), worsened emotional status during pregnancy (OR=2.35, CI=1.49-3.72), short inter-pregnancy interval (OR=1.72, CI=1.10-2.72), no iron consumption (OR=1.46, CI=1.06-2.03), using folic acid (OR=2.45, CI=1.33-4.52), and black colour women (OR=2.87, CI=1.35-6.10) were predictive for preterm delivery. After controlling for all significant predictors, coffee and tea consumption during pregnancy was not significantly associated with increased odds of preterm delivery.

Conclusion

These results do not support an association between coffee and tea consumption and preterm delivery.

Associations between consumption of coffee and caffeinated soft drinks and late stillbirth-Findings from the Midland and North of England stillbirth case-control study

OBJECTIVE

The consumption of caffeinated drinks and soft drinks is widespread in society, including by pregnant women. Data regarding the association of caffeine intake and stillbirth are varied. We aimed to investigate the degree of consumption of caffeinated drinks or soft drinks in the last four weeks of pregnancy in women who experienced a late stillbirth compared to women with ongoing live pregnancies at similar gestation. Influences on maternal caffeine intake and soft drink consumption during pregnancy were also investigated.

STUDY DESIGN

A case-control study undertaken in 41 maternity units in the United Kingdom. Cases were women who had a singleton non-anomalous stillbirth ≥28 weeks' gestation (n = 290) and controls were women with an ongoing pregnancy at the time of interview (n = 729). Data were collected using an interviewer-administered questionnaire which included questions regarding consumption of a variety of caffeinated drinks and soft drinks in the last four weeks of pregnancy as well as other behaviours (e.g. cigarette smoking).

RESULTS

Multivariable analysis adjusting for co-existing demographic and behavioural factors found the consumption of instant coffee, energy drinks and cola were associated with increased risk of stillbirth. There was an independent association between caffeine intake and late stillbirth (adjusted Odds Ratio 1.27, 95 % Confidence Interval (95 %CI) 1.14, 1.43 for each 100 mg increment/day). 15 % of cases and 8% of controls consumed more than the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation (>300 mg of caffeine/day; aOR 2.30, 95 % CI 1.40, 4.24). The population attributable risk for stillbirth associated with >300 mg of caffeine/day was 7.4 %. The majority of respondents reduced caffeine consumption in pregnancy. Midwives and internet resources were the most frequently used sources of information which influenced maternal behaviour with regard to soft drinks and caffeine, and this did not differ between cases and controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Women should be informed that consumption of caffeine during pregnancy is associated with increased risk of stillbirth, particularly at levels greater than recommended by the WHO (>300 mg/day). Recommendations from midwives and internet-based resources are likely to be the most effective means to influence maternal behaviour.

Extraction-Free, Direct Determination of Caffeine in Microliter Volumes of Beverages by Thermal Desorption-Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry

An extraction-free method requiring microliter (μL) volumes has been developed for the determination of caffeine in beverages. Using a pyrolysis-gas chromatography mass spectrometry system, the conditions required for the direct thermal desorption-gas chromatography mass spectrometry (TD-GC/MS) determination of caffeine were optimised. A 5 μL aliquot was introduced to the thermal desorption unit, dried, and thermally desorbed to the GC/MS. The response was linear over the range 10 to 500 μg/mL (R² = 0.996). The theoretical limit of detection (3 σ) was 0.456 μg/mL. No interferences were recorded from endogenous beverage components or from commonly occurring drugs, such as nicotine, ibuprofen, and paracetamol. Replicate caffeine determinations on fortified latte style white coffee and Pepsi Max® gave mean recoveries of 93.4% (%CV = 4.1%) and 95.0% (%CV = 0.98%), respectively. Good agreement was also obtained with the stated values of caffeine for an energy drink and for Coca-Cola®. These data suggest that the method holds promise for the determination of caffeine in such samples.

Effects of Caffeine and Coffee on Human Functioning

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Subchondral bone dysplasia mediates susceptibility to osteoarthritis in female adult offspring rats induced by prenatal caffeine exposure

Our previous studies confirmed that prenatal caffeine exposure (PCE) could induce susceptibility to osteoarthritis in adult offspring rats due to poor chondrocyte differentiation, but its mechanism remains to be further investigated. This study aimed to explore whether subchondral bone dysplasia mediates susceptibility to osteoarthritis in adult offspring rats induced by PCE. Pregnant Wistar rats were treated with caffeine (120 mg/kg.d) or saline from gestational day (GD) 9 to 20. The female offspring were euthanized to collect femurs at GD20, postnatal week (PW) 6, and PW28 (non-ovariectomy and ovariectomy groups) to detect osteoarthritis-like phenotype, subchondral bone mass, ossification center development, and other evidence. The results showed that PCE increased the Mankin score of pathological articular cartilage, but decreased articular cartilage thickness and subchondral bone mass, which were more obvious after ovariectomy. Meanwhile, the correlation analysis results demonstrated that the Mankin score of articular cartilage was significantly negatively correlated with subchondral bone mass, and the thickness of articular cartilage was significantly positively correlated with subchondral bone mass. Further, the length and area of the primary and secondary ossification centers, the number of osteoblasts, and the related genes' expression of osteogenic differentiation (e.g., Runx2, BSP, ALP, and OCN) were all significantly decreased in the PCE group before and after birth. Taken together, PCE induced susceptibility to osteoarthritis in adult female offspring, which was likely related to the subchondral bone dysplasia and reduction of subchondral bone mass production due to developmental disorder of primary and secondary ossification centers caused by osteoblast differentiation disability before and after birth.