The Australian Feeding Infants and Toddler Study (OzFITS 2021): Breastfeeding and Early Feeding Practices

Parent-reported offering of allergen foods to infants during complementary feeding: An observational study of New Zealand infants

The prevalence of food allergies in New Zealand infants is uncertain but is believed to be similar to Australia, exceeding 10%. Current recommendations for reducing food allergy risk are to offer all major food allergens to infants from as early as six months of age (start of complementary feeding), and before 12 months of age. However, little is known regarding parental practices around introducing major food allergens. This study aimed to explore parental offering of major food allergens to infants during complementary feeding, and parent-reported food allergies. The cross-sectional study is a secondary analysis of the multi-centre (Auckland and Dunedin) First Foods New Zealand study of 625 parent-infant dyads. Participants were recruited in 2020-2022 when infants were 7-10 months of age. Questionnaires assessed sociodemographic characteristics, complementary feeding approach, infant pouch use and parental responses to five food allergy questions. All major food allergens had been offered to only 17% of infants by 9-10 months of age. Having offered egg, peanut, tree nuts, sesame, soy and seafood was more commonly associated with using a baby-led complementary feeding approach than a parent-led approach (p < 0.001). Frequent baby food pouch use was associated with a lower likelihood of offering egg and peanut (both p < 0.001). Overall, 12.6% of infants had a reported food allergy, with symptomatic response after exposure being the most common diagnostic tool. Most infants are not offered all major food allergens during early complementary feeding, with some parents actively avoiding major food allergens in the first year of life. These results provide up-to-date knowledge of parental practices, highlighting the need for more targeted advice and strategies to improve parental engagement with allergy prevention and diagnosis.

Usual Choline Intake of Australian Children 6-24 Months: Findings from the Australian Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (OzFITS 2021)

(1) Background: Despite the important role choline plays in child development, there are no data on dietary choline intake in early childhood in Australia. (2) Aim: In this cross-sectional study, we estimated the usual total choline intake and the proportion exceeding the Adequate Intake (AI) and determined the main dietary sources of choline in infants 6-12 months (n = 286) and toddlers 12-24 months (n = 475) of age. (3) Methods: A single 24-h food record with repeats collected during the 2021 Australian Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (OzFITS 2021) was used to estimate dietary choline intake. (4) Results: The mean choline intake was 142 ± 1.9 mg/day in infants and 181 ± 1.2 mg/day in toddlers. Only 35% of infants and 23% of toddlers exceeded the AI for choline based on Nutrient Reference Values (NRVs) for Australia and New Zealand. Breastmilk was the leading source of choline, contributing 42% and 14% of total choline intake in infants and toddlers, respectively; however, egg consumers had the highest adjusted choline intakes and probability of exceeding the AI. (5) Conclusions: Findings suggest that choline intake may be suboptimal in Australian infants and toddlers. Further research to examine the impact of low choline intake on child development is warranted.

Study Protocol for a Stepped-Wedge Cluster (Nested) Randomized Controlled Trial of Antenatal Colostrum Expression (ACE) Instruction in First-Time Mothers: The ACE Study

BACKGROUND

Although many mothers initiate breastfeeding, supplementation with human-milk substitutes (formula) during the birth hospitalization is common and has been associated with early breastfeeding cessation. Colostrum hand expressed in the last few weeks before birth, known as antenatal colostrum expression (ACE), can be used instead of human-milk substitutes. However, evidence is lacking on the efficacy of ACE on breastfeeding outcomes and in non-diabetic mothers.

METHODS AND PLANNED ANALYSIS

This multicenter stepped-wedge cluster (nested) randomized controlled trial aims to recruit 945 nulliparous pregnant individuals. The trial is conducted in two phases. During Phase 1, control group participants are under standard care. During Phase 2, participants are randomized to ACE instruction via a pre-recorded online video or a one-on-one session with a midwife. Adjusted logistic regression analysis will be used to examine the relationship between ACE instruction and breastfeeding outcomes.

RESEARCH AIMS AND QUESTIONS

Primary aim: (1) Does advising pregnant individuals to practice ACE and providing instruction improve exclusive breastfeeding rates at 4 months postpartum? Secondary research questions: (2) Do individuals who practice ACE have higher rates of exclusive breastfeeding during the initial hospital stay after birth? (3) Is teaching ACE via an online video non-inferior to one-on-one instruction from a midwife? (4) Does expressing colostrum in pregnancy influence time to secretory activation, or (5) result in any differences in the composition of postnatal colostrum?

DISCUSSION

Trial findings have important implications for maternity practice, with the online video providing an easily accessible opportunity for ACE education as part of standard antenatal care.

Mothers' sociodemographic factors and use of health professionals for child feeding advice

This study examined sociodemographic factors associated with mothers seeking child feeding advice from health professionals (HPs). Cross-sectional analysis of survey data from linked randomized controlled trials was conducted. Surveys asked which sources of feeding information mothers used when their child was 6 months and 5 years old. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between sociodemographic characteristics and use of information from HPs. Here, 947 and 405 mothers completed 6-month and 5-year surveys, respectively. At 6 months, multiparous mothers were less likely to seek advice from child and family health nurses (CFHNs) (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 0.558, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 0.416-0.749) and other HPs (AOR: 0.706, 95% CI: 0.542-0.919), unmarried mothers were less likely to seek advice from other HPs (AOR: 0.582, 95% CI: 0.342-0.990). At 5 years, mothers with household income ≥$80,000 p.a. were less likely to seek advice from CFHNs (AOR: 0.514, 95% CI: 0.302-0.875) and working mothers less likely to seek advice from general practitioners (GPs) (AOR: 0.581, 95% CI: 0.374-0.905). Mothers born in Australia were less likely to seek information from CFHNs (AOR: 0.462, 95% CI: 0.257-0.833) and GPs (AOR: 0.431, 95% CI: 0.274-0.677). There was a greater likelihood that multiparous mothers (AOR: 2.114, 95% CI: 1.272-3.516) and mothers of children whose fathers had not attended university (AOR: 2.081, 95% CI: 1.256-3.449) had never sought advice from CFHNs, and that mothers who had not attended university (AOR: 1.769, 95% CI: 1.025-3.051), multiparous (AOR: 1.831, 95% CI: 1.105-3.035) and employed (AOR: 2.058, 95% CI: 1.135-3.733) mothers had never sought advice from other HPs. Understanding sociodemographic factors associated with seeking child feeding advice from HPs may inform priorities for engaging families in health promotion.

Adherence to Infant Feeding Guidelines in the First Foods New Zealand Study

Infant feeding guidelines provide evidence-based recommendations to support optimal infant health, growth, and development, and exploring adherence to guidelines is a useful way of assessing diet quality. The aim of this study was to determine adherence to the recently updated Ministry of Health "Healthy Eating Guidelines for New Zealand Babies and Toddlers (0-2 years old)". Data were obtained from First Foods New Zealand, a multicentre observational study of 625 infants aged 7.0-10.0 months. Caregivers completed two 24-h diet recalls and a demographic and feeding questionnaire. Nearly all caregivers (97.9%) initiated breastfeeding, 37.8% exclusively breastfed to around six months of age, and 66.2% were currently breastfeeding (mean age 8.4 months). Most caregivers met recommendations for solid food introduction, including appropriate age (75.4%), iron-rich foods (88.3%), puréed textures (80.3%), and spoon-feeding (74.1%). Infants consumed vegetables (63.2%) and fruit (53.9%) more frequently than grain foods (49.5%), milk and milk products (38.6%), and meat and protein-rich foods (31.8%). Most caregivers avoided inappropriate beverages (93.9%) and adding salt (76.5%) and sugar (90.6%). Our findings indicated that while most infants met the recommendations for the introduction of appropriate solid foods, the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding could be improved, indicating that New Zealand families may need more support.

Applying Legitimation Code Theory to teach breastfeeding in nurse education: A case study

AIM

To use Legitimation Code Theory as a framework to inform the design of nursing education and gain insights into student perspectives of this design.

BACKGROUND

Internationally, the World Health Organization's breastfeeding recommendations are not being met. One contributing factor is that healthcare providers including registered nurses lack the knowledge to support breastfeeding women on an ongoing basis and rely on their personal experiences to inform the care they provide. Undergraduate nursing students should receive education to assist breastfeeding women in practice.

DESIGN

The study is underpinned by case-study methodology. The Legitimation Code Theory (LCT) dimension of Semantics and the concepts of semantic gravity and semantic density were used to theoretically frame and develop an intervention module to teach undergraduate nurses about breastfeeding.

METHODS

This module was part of an elective seven-week paediatric nursing course. University Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC201/203) reviewed the study. Participants (n = 9) completed semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis helped us to understand their experiences of the module. The Template for Intervention and Description and Replication (TIDeR) framework was used to report the intervention.

RESULTS

The breastfeeding module was positively received by participants who noted the module's structure differed from previous courses. Three main themes were identified in the student experience. These are: a) threads and links; b) engaging structure; and c) seedlings.

CONCLUSION

Legitimation Code Theory is an effective course development framework to harness the learners' prior informal knowledge and weave learning activities between theory and contextual practice to develop cumulative knowledge.

IMPACT

With an increased understanding of how undergraduate nursing students develop knowledge, the LCT dimension of Semantics can be ussed to structure content knowledge in instructional design. This approach builds explicit bridges between knowledge development in the nursing curriculum and learners' informal knowledge and contextual practice in clinical settings.

Are Complementary Feeding Practices Aligned with Current Recommendations? A Narrative Review

The complementary feeding introduction period (introduction of solid foods alongside breastmilk or formula) is defining in children's health; however, it appears that many parents do not follow complementary feeding guidelines. Our aim was to describe current parental feeding practices during complementary feeding in relation to current recommendations and explore determinants of adherence to guidelines. We included any relevant studies published within the last decade in French or English and summarized findings by recommendation category. The timing of complementary food introduction varied widely across and within continents (earlier in North America and often delayed in Asia). The introduction of allergenic foods tended to be delayed globally. Although some parents now begin complementary feeding with solid foods (i.e., baby-led weaning), delayed introduction of lumpy textures was still prevalent in the United States and in Europe. The consumption of iron-rich foods was predominantly low in Africa. Added sugars were globally introduced early, especially in America. Evidence for the prevalence of responsive feeding practices among parents is unclear due to the small number of studies. Determinants of complementary feeding practices included parental characteristics, such as age, education, socio-economic status, and race/ethnicity. Interventions aiming to increase adherence to complementary feeding guidelines must account for parental characteristics.

Breastfeeding in Canada: predictors of initiation, exclusivity, and continuation from the 2017-2018 Canadian Community Health Survey

Human milk is the ideal source of nutrition for infants; however, adherence to breastfeeding recommendations is suboptimal and availability of Canadian breastfeeding data are limited. Using the 2017-2018 Canadian Community Health Survey Public Use Microdata File (Maternal Experiences Module, n = 5558, weighted n = 1 669 462) we computed breastfeeding indicators and explored sociodemographic, health, and geographical predictors of breastfeeding with univariate logistic regression models. Nationally, of all participants who gave birth in the preceding 5 years, 91% initiated breastfeeding, 43% exclusively breastfed to ≥5 months and 35% to ≥6 months, 56% reported any breastfeeding at ≥6 months, and 31% reported breastfeeding at ≥12 months. Breastfeeding cessation was most commonly attributed to insufficient milk supply (25%), but reasons differed significantly by breastfeeding duration. Breastfeeding initiation, exclusivity for ≥5 months, and extended breastfeeding ≥12 months all differed by geographic region, and by most sociodemographic and health characteristics. Positive breastfeeding outcomes were highest in British Columbia, and lowest in Quebec and the Atlantic region, and generally higher if caregivers had recently immigrated to Canada, were married, were >30 years of age, were not White, were nonsmoking, had completed postsecondary education, and had an annual household income >$40 000. These disparities indicate the need for tailored, equitable approaches to breastfeeding support, and continued regional monitoring of breastfeeding outcomes.

Breastfeeding: crucially important, but increasingly challenged in a market-driven world

In this Series paper, we examine how mother and baby attributes at the individual level interact with breastfeeding determinants at other levels, how these interactions drive breastfeeding outcomes, and what policies and interventions are necessary to achieve optimal breastfeeding. About one in three neonates in low-income and middle-income countries receive prelacteal feeds, and only one in two neonates are put to the breast within the first hour of life. Prelacteal feeds are strongly associated with delayed initiation of breastfeeding. Self-reported insufficient milk continues to be one of the most common reasons for introducing commercial milk formula (CMF) and stopping breastfeeding. Parents and health professionals frequently misinterpret typical, unsettled baby behaviours as signs of milk insufficiency or inadequacy. In our market-driven world and in violation of the WHO International Code for Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes, the CMF industry exploits concerns of parents about these behaviours with unfounded product claims and advertising messages. A synthesis of reviews between 2016 and 2021 and country-based case studies indicate that breastfeeding practices at a population level can be improved rapidly through multilevel and multicomponent interventions across the socioecological model and settings. Breastfeeding is not the sole responsibility of women and requires collective societal approaches that take gender inequities into consideration.

Asthma in pregnancy - Management, maternal co-morbidities, and long-term health

Asthma is the most prevalent chronic disease in pregnancy, and as symptoms can change with pregnancy, and exacerbations of asthma are common, regular review of asthma symptoms, the provision of self-management education, and appropriate medication use are the hallmarks of management. Co-morbidities are also prevalent among pregnant women with asthma, with obesity, gestational diabetes, hypertension, rhinitis, depression, and anxiety, more common among women with asthma than women without asthma. Less is known about reflux, obstructive sleep apnoea and vocal cord dysfunction, along with nutritional deficiencies to iron and vitamin D. Maternal asthma impacts the offspring's long-term health, particularly in increasing the risk of early life wheeze and asthma in childhood. While breastfeeding may modify the risk of infant wheeze, less is known about the mechanisms involved. More research is needed to further understand the relationship between asthma in pregnancy and the risk of poor neurodevelopmental outcomes, such as autism.

Protocol for a multicentre prospective observational study of families with full-term infants on postnatal wards and in the community to capture feeding practices across the first year of life: the Mother Infant Lactation Questionnaire (MILQ) study

INTRODUCTION

Breastmilk is considered the gold standard for infant nutrition. Breast feeding is recommended as the sole source of nutrition between birth until around 6 months of age and should be continued beyond this age as complementary foods are introduced. While breast feeding initiation is generally high in developed countries, continuation of breast feeding appears to drop rapidly. This is a prospective observational study of life that aims to characterise a current picture of infant feeding practices across the first year, and motivations for feeding practices, and to identify barriers and enablers for breast feeding.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Caregivers with newborn singleton infants of normal birth weight are approached on the postnatal units of three hospitals in South Australia, or through targeted online advertising campaigns promoting the study. Caregivers are asked to complete surveys when their infant reaches 3, 5 and 7 weeks', and at 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 12 months of age. Initially, baseline characteristics, intentions and preferences for infant milk feeds, as well as reasons for preferences are captured. Latter surveys query how infants are being fed, difficulties or barriers to breast feeding, as well as any enablers (if breast feeding). Once infants reach 5 months of age, surveys capture complementary feeding. A large opportunistic sample from the Adelaide community with a minimum of 1000 mother-infant pairs will be enrolled. The data will be analysed descriptively and using regression models.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Women's and Children's Health Network Human Research Ethics Committee reviewed and approved the study (approval no HREC/19/WCHN/140, approval date: 22 November 2019). Study results will be disseminated through academic meetings, peer-reviewed journals, in-services for postnatal healthcare services, results letters for participants and social media.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ACTRN12620000529943.

Feeding Infants and Toddlers Studies (FITS) Provide Valuable Information for Setting Dietary Guidelines

Adequate nutrition is essential from the early stages of life onward, to ensure proper growth and development as well as long-term health [...].

Does Food Intake of Australian Toddlers 12–24 Months Align with Recommendations: Findings from the Australian Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (OzFITS) 2021

(1) Background: Food-based dietary guidelines promote population health and well-being through dietary patterns that reduce chronic disease risk while providing adequate energy and nutrients. In Australia, recommended dietary patterns based on servings per day from the five food groups—fruits, vegetables, cereals and grains, meats and alternatives, and dairy—have been developed for toddlers 1–2 years of age. However, no study has assessed the intake of the five food groups in this age group nationally. (2) Aim: To compare daily servings and the percentage of energy from the five food groups and discretionary foods in toddlers 1–2 years old to the Australian Dietary Guidelines. (3) Methods: Dietary intake was assessed using a one-day food record for 475 toddlers. (4) Results: Apart from fruit and dairy, servings of the five food groups were below the recommendations. Two-thirds of toddlers did not consume enough vegetables, and only 10% consumed the recommended number of servings for cereals and grains. On average, toddlers consumed only half the recommended servings of meat and alternatives. Nearly all toddlers (89%) consumed discretionary foods, which accounted for ~12% of total energy. Forty-five percent of toddlers received breastmilk. On average, breastfed toddlers consumed fewer servings from the five food groups than non-breastfed toddlers. Dairy contributed 20% of daily energy in all toddlers; however, this food group accounted for 13% in breastfed and 32% in non-breastfed toddlers on the day of the food record. (4) Conclusions: Compared to the recommendations, alignment with the servings of the five food group foods was not achieved by most toddlers, except for fruit and dairy. Discretionary foods may have displaced nutritious family foods. Consistent with Australian Infant Feeding Guidelines, many toddlers in this study continued to receive breastmilk but the recommended dietary patterns do not include breastmilk. Dietary modeling, including breastmilk as the primary milk source, is urgently needed, along with practical advice on incorporating breastmilk in a toddler’s diet while optimizing food consumption.

Early Life Nutrition and the Role of Complementary Feeding on Later Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Children up to 3 Years of Age

The first years of life represent a window of opportunity to establish proper dietary patterns and to maintain them over time. Our aim was to describe the diet of a cohort of Spanish children, from 2 to 36 months, and to identify the components that could influence the quality of the diet at 24 and 36 months of age. This was a longitudinal prospective study analyzing information from administered questionnaires about general characteristics and food frequency consumption in 97 full-term babies. At 2–3 months of age, only 53.6% of infants were observed to be breastfed. The intake of animal foodstuffs from 12 to 36 months was higher than national recommendations, and the contrary was true for fruits and vegetables. The intake of vitamin D was below European Food Safety Authority recommendations. Moreover, energy intake at 6 months was inversely associated with Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS) at 24 months, whereas vegetables intake was positively associated with MDS at 36 months. These results could be useful in the creation of future guidelines focused on the promotion of breastfeeding and healthy early-life food habits.