Sport Nutrition Knowledge, Attitudes, Sources of Information, and Dietary Habits of Sport-Team Athletes

Differences in perceived energy and macronutrient requirements across divisions in NCAA athletes

BACKGROUND

Sports nutrition is an impactful component to sports performance. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the sports nutrition knowledge of National Collegiate Athletic Association collegiate athletes and assess self-reported perceived requirements for energy and macronutrient intake. A secondary aim was to evaluate the awareness of physical and emotional perceptions associated with mindful eating.

METHODS

Participants included NCAA Division I (DI, n = 45), II (DII, n = 31), and III (DIII, n = 47) athletes. Athletes completed a validated questionnaire designed to assess sports nutrition knowledge and were asked questions about their perceived dietary energy and macronutrient requirements. Daily energy intake values were calculated using a recommended relative energy intake value of 40, 50, and 60 kcal/kg/day for low, moderate, and high activity levels, respectively. Carbohydrate recommendations were calculated using 4, 6, and 8 g/kg/day, protein recommendations were calculated using relative intakes of 1.4, 1.6, and 1.8 g/kg/day, and fat recommendations were calculated from a relative percentage of total predicted daily energy requirements, equating to 15, 25, and 30% of daily energy. Additionally, athletes completed a questionnaire to assess mindfulness regarding eating habits.

RESULTS

Overall, athletes answered 45.5 ± 13.5% of questions correctly on the nutrition questionnaire with significant differences observed between male (48.6 ± 13.6%) and female athletes (43.6 ± 13.2%; p = 0.044), as well as significant differences observed between DI athlete scores (38.8 ± 14.1%) and DII athletes (47.7 ± 11.4%; p = 0.002), and DI athletes and DIII athletes (51.71 ± 11.83%; p =  <0.001). All athletes significantly (p < 0.001) underestimated daily energy intake requirements (female, 2,112 ± 575 kcal/day; male, 3,283 ± 538 kcal/day). The mindfulness eating habits total score was significantly higher in male athletes (65.1 ± 6.5) compared to female athletes (60.9 ± 9.5; p = 0.009).

CONCLUSIONS

Division I, II, and III collegiate athletes have poor sports nutrition knowledge, with Division I athletes having exhibited lower scores compared to Division II and III athletes on the sports nutrition knowledge questionnaire. Athletes from all levels of collegiate sports underestimated their energy and macronutrient requirements. Differences in mindful eating habits among female and male athletes were also evident.

Exploring the Experiences and Perspectives of Division III Athletes Regarding Personalized Nutrition Plans for Improved Performance-A Qualitative Investigation

(1) Background: This qualitative study explores Division III college student-athletes' experiences and perceptions of personalized nutrition plans in collegiate sports settings. (2) Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted using a general qualitative research design. Using a grounded theory approach, a thematic analysis was utilized to analyze the interview transcripts, allowing for the identification of recurring themes and patterns. (3) Results: A total of 30 Division III college student-athletes, 16 males (53.3%) and 14 females (46.7%), representing a diverse range of sports disciplines, engaged in discussions about personalized nutrition plans. Analysis of the data revealed five main themes: (1) Nutritional Knowledge and Awareness, (2) Perceived Benefits of Personalized Nutrition Plans, (3) Challenges and Barriers to Implementation, (4) Influence of Team Culture and Environment, and (5) Suggestions for Improvement. (4) Conclusion: This study sheds light on the complexities of implementing personalized nutrition plans in collegiate sports settings and emphasizes the need for comprehensive, athlete-centered approaches to optimize performance and well-being.

Attitude towards healthy nutrition and mental toughness: a study of taekwondo athletes

Healthy nutrition is widely considered the cornerstone of optimal athletic performance, both physically and mentally. This study investigates the critical role of healthy nutrition in shaping the physical and mental performance of athletes, with a specific focus on taekwondo. This research aims to explore the potential relationship between taekwondo athletes' attitudes towards healthy nutrition and their mental toughness. The research group comprised 276 active and licensed taekwondo athletes who voluntarily participated in the study (Age M = 17.18 ± SD = 7.13, N = 125 women, N = 151 men). Ethical approval for the research was obtained prior to the commencement of the study. Data collection instruments included the Healthy Nutrition Attitude Scale, Mental Toughness Scale, and a personal information form. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to confirm the validity and reliability of the scales. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression analysis were performed to explore the relationship between the variables within the research model. The correlation analysis identified two significant, positive, and moderate correlations: (1) between knowledge about nutrition and mental toughness (r = 0.626) and (2) between positive nutrition and mental toughness (r = 0.672). The regression analysis revealed that both knowledge about nutrition (β = 0.360) and positive nutrition (β = 0.461) significantly contribute to mental toughness. The findings suggest that as athletes' knowledge of nutrition expands and their attitudes towards healthy eating become more positive, their mental toughness also appears to improve. These results are both important and original, adding significant new insights to the existing research landscape.

The effect of nutrition education sessions on energy availability, body composition, eating attitude and sports nutrition knowledge in young female endurance athletes

Nutrition knowledge plays a pivotal role in shaping dietary habits and food choices, particularly in the realm of sports nutrition. This study investigates the effects of a series of nutrition education sessions conducted by a registered dietitian on energy availability, various anthropometric measurements, eating attitudes, and sports nutrition knowledge in young female endurance athletes aged 15-18 years (football, basketball, volleyball) who engage in training for more than 10 h per week (n = 83). Participants were randomly divided into two groups with 45 individuals receiving six physical nutrition education lectures, and the remaining 38 participants receiving no nutrition education. Participants completed the low energy availability in females questionnaire (LEAF-Q), Eating Attitude Test (EAT-26), and Sports Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire (SNKQ). Energy and nutrient intakes were evaluated through 3-day food records, while exercise energy expenditure was assessed using 3-day activity logs. All of the questionnaires were repeated after 6 months. At baseline, the prevalence of LEA among athletes was determined to be 63.8%. In the intervention group, energy availability (EA) and SNKQ scores increased, and LEAF-Q scores decreased significantly (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant change in EAT-26 scores between the two groups. Energy intake, weight, fat-free mass, and resting metabolic rate have been increased significantly in the intervention group (p < 0,05). These findings suggest that nutrition education proves beneficial in enhancing dietary intake, positively influencing body composition, and improving nutrition knowledge, ultimately contributing to increased energy availability in female athletes over the short term.

Perspectives on the role of nutrition in influencing academy soccer player development and performance: A qualitative case study of key stakeholders from an English category one soccer academy

This study aimed to explore player and stakeholder perceptions of the role of nutrition in influencing the development of male academy soccer players. Semi-structured interviews (28 ± 13 mins in length) were conducted with 31 participants from an English category one academy, including players (Youth Development Phase, YDP: n = 6; Professional Development Phase, PDP: n = 4), parents/guardians (n = 10), coaches (n = 3), sport scientists (n = 3), physiotherapists (n = 3), and catering (n = 2). Via reflexive thematic analysis, data demonstrate an apparent lack of understanding and awareness on the role of nutrition in influencing player development, especially in relation to growth, maturation and reducing injury risk. Players highlighted the influence of their parents on their dietary behaviours, whilst parents also called for education to better support their sons. Notably, players and stakeholders perceived that the daily schedule of an academy soccer player presents as "too busy to eat", especially in relation to before school, and before and after training. The results demonstrate the necessity for the co-creation of player and stakeholder specific nutrition education programmes as an initial step towards positively impacting the nutrition culture associated with the academy soccer environment.

Sleep, Nutrition, and Injury Risk in Adolescent Athletes: A Narrative Review

This narrative review explores the impact of sleep and nutrition on injury risk in adolescent athletes. Sleep is viewed as essential to the recuperation process and is distinguished as an active participant in recovery through its involvement in growth, repair, regeneration, and immunity. Furthermore, the literature has shown that the sleep of athletes impacts elements of athletic performance including both physical and cognitive performance, recovery, injury risk, and mental well-being. For sleep to have a restorative effect on the body, it must meet an individual's sleep needs whilst also lasting for an adequate duration and being of adequate quality, which is age-dependent. The literature has suggested that athletes have increased sleep needs compared to those of the general population and thus the standard recommendations may not be sufficient for athletic populations. Therefore, a more individualised approach accounting for overall sleep health may be more appropriate for addressing sleep needs in individuals including athletes. The literature has demonstrated that adolescent athletes achieve, on average, ~6.3 h of sleep, demonstrating a discrepancy between sleep recommendations (8-10 h) and actual sleep achieved. Sleep-wake cycles undergo development during adolescence whereby adaptation occurs in sleep regulation during this phase. These adaptations increase sleep pressure tolerance and are driven by the maturation of physiological, psychological, and cognitive functioning along with delays in circadian rhythmicity, thus creating an environment for inadequate sleep during adolescence. As such, the adolescent period is a phase of rapid growth and maturation that presents multiple challenges to both sleep and nutrition; consequently, this places a significant burden on an adolescent athletes' ability to recover, thus increasing the likelihood of injury. Therefore, this article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the available literature on the importance of sleep and nutrition interactions in injury risk in adolescent athletes. Furthermore, it provides foundations for informing further investigations exploring the relation of sleep and nutrition interactions to recovery during adolescence.

Nutritional knowledge, attitude, and practice of professional athletes in an Iranian population (a cross-sectional study)

BACKGROUND

Proper nutrition is vital in promoting community health, yet insufficient knowledge and improper dietary practices can lead to deficiencies and diseases. Professional athletes depend on optimal nutrition for their performance and recovery, but a lack of understanding can impede their potential. The nutritional status of athletes impacts their overall health and sports performance. Inadequate sports nutrition knowledge may result in suboptimal practices, reducing strength, power, endurance, and immunity. Additionally, disordered attitudes can lead to dietary imbalances and an increased risk of injury. This study, conducted in Qazvin, Iran, examined athletes' nutritional knowledge, attitudes, and practices. By addressing these factors, there is potential to enhance dietary behaviors and ultimately improve athletes' performance.

METHODS

The study employed a descriptive-analytical, cross-sectional design to investigate the nutritional knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of professional athletes in Qazvin, Iran. A total of 320 purposefully selected professional athletes (68.13% male, 31.87% female) from various sports fields participated in the research. The data collection tool consisted of demographic questions and a KAP questionnaire, including 27 nutritional knowledge questions, 16 nutritional attitude questions, and 14 nutritional performance questions. The quota sampling method was used to estimate sample sizes. Data analysis was carried out by SPSS v.26 using one sample t-test, one-way ANOVA, and Pearson's correlation coefficient test.

RESULTS

The results showed that nutritional knowledge (the mean value was 79.594 ± 7.015 - the optimal knowledge level = 84) and attitude (the mean value was 23.347 ± 5.300 - the optimal attitude level = 26) for athletes are low, but their nutritional practice (the mean value was 21.788 ± 3.450 - the optimal performance level = 24) was moderate. Also, professional athletes' nutritional knowledge, attitude, and practice were lower than normal (p < 0.05). Significant positive correlations were among knowledge, attitude, and practice (p < 0.05). However, there were no significant differences in nutritional knowledge, attitude, and practice among the subjects of different age groups, genders, and sports types (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

This study showed that the nutritional knowledge, attitude, and practice of professional Iranian athletes in Qazvin province were low; therefore, the implementation of more theoretical and applied nutrition education, such as using knowledge assessment tools and interventions, irrespective of their age, sport's field, and gender, is compelling.

Evaluation of Validity and Reliability of a German General and Sports Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire for Athletes and Coaches (GSNKQ-AC)

Despite the availability of nutritional recommendations, studies have reported inadequate nutrition in athletes. The existing literature highlights the importance of the nutritional knowledge of both athletes and coaches in influencing athletes' food choices and behavior, as well as its direct and indirect impact on athletes' performance and health. To adequately assess nutritional knowledge, monitoring via valid and reliable questionnaires is required. As no questionnaire tailored to German-speaking athletes and coaches exists, this study aimed at developing a new General and Sports Nutritional Knowledge Questionnaire for Athletes and Coaches (GSNKQ-AC). The development followed a literature-based, ten-step validation approach. The initial questionnaire (63 items) was revised and reduced to 29 items in the final version after conducting construct verification in the target group (n = 84 athletes and coaches), evaluating content validity by a panel of nutrition experts (n = 8), verifying face validity by think-out-loud interviews in the target group (n = 7), and conducting classical test theory for item reduction analysis (n = 53). For the final GSNKQ-AC, internal consistency, calculated as Cronbach's alpha, was 0.87. Students with a focus on sports nutrition (n = 31) scored significantly higher than athletes and coaches (n = 53), revealing good construct validity (77% vs. 62%, p < 0.001). Test-retest reliability (n = 42, matched pairs) showed a Spearman's correlation coefficient of r = 0.61 (p < 0.01). The brief GSNKQ-AC can be used for status quo or longitudinal assessment of nutritional knowledge among athletes and coaches to reveal gaps and ensure purposeful planning of educational interventions.

Assessment of General and Sports Nutrition Knowledge, Dietary Habits, and Nutrient Intake of Physical Activity Practitioners and Athletes in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Physical performance and overall health are crucial in the athletic population, and their improvement relies on specific dietary guidelines and practices. Athletes and physical activity practitioners who participate in physical activity for specific health reasons need nutritional knowledge to improve physical performance. This study aimed to understand nutrient intake and nutritional knowledge among physical activity practitioners and athletes in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. This cross-sectional study sampled 263 individuals divided into two groups: athletes (n = 121) and practitioners (n = 142). Their nutritional knowledge and dietary intake were measured with validated questionnaires: the Arabic Abridged Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire and the Saudi Food Frequency Questionnaire. The majority of the sample (77.2%) had poor nutritional knowledge. Highest scoring domains for the dietary intake were protein from meat, fish, chicken (65.6%), vegetarian protein (62.4%), grains (51.0%), and the lowest were vegetables (41.1%), dairy (36.3%), and fruits (27.9%). In conclusion, athletes and practitioners in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, have poor nutritional knowledge and dietary intake and may benefit from nutritional education and training to improve their knowledge, dietary intake, and performance.

Personality Determinants of Exercise-Related Nutritional Behaviours among Polish Team Sport Athletes

A proper diet increases the effectiveness of training and accelerates post-workout regeneration. One of the factors determining eating behaviour are personality traits, including those included in the Big Five model, i.e., neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The aim of this study was to analyse the personality determinants of peri-exercise nutritional behaviours among an elite group of Polish athletes practicing team sports. The study was conducted in a group of 213 athletes, using the author's validated questionnaire of exercise-related nutrition behaviours and the NEO-PI-R (Neuroticism Extraversion Openness-Personality Inventory-Revised). A statistical analysis was performed using Pearson's linear correlation and Spearman's rank correlation coefficients as well as a multiple regression analysis, assuming a significance level of α = 0.05. It has been shown that the level of the overall index regarding normal peri-exercise eating behaviours decreased with increasing neuroticism (r = -0.18) and agreeableness (r = -0.18). An analysis of the relationship between the personality traits (sub-scales) of the Big Five model demonstrated that the overall index of proper peri-exercise nutrition decreased with the intensification of three neuroticism traits, i.e., hostility/anger (R = -0.20), impulsiveness/immoderation (R = -0.18), and vulnerability to stress/learned helplessness (R = -0.19), and four traits of agreeableness, i.e., straightforwardness/morality (R = -0.17), compliance/cooperation (R = -0.19), modesty (R = -0.14), and tendermindedness/sympathy (R = -0.15) (p < 0.05). A multiple regression analysis exhibited that the full model consisting of all the analysed personality traits explained 99% of the variance concerning the level of the proper peri-exercise nutrition index. In conclusion, the index of proper nutrition under conditions of physical effort decreases along with the intensification of neuroticism and agreeableness among Polish athletes professionally practicing team sports.

Personality Determinants of Eating Behaviours among an Elite Group of Polish Athletes Training in Team Sports

The nutritional behaviours of athletes are determined by environmental and individual factors. The aim of the research was to analyse the personality determinants of the eating behaviour among an elite group of Polish athletes training in team sports. The research was conducted among 213 athletes, using a proprietary validated nutritional behaviour questionnaire and the Neuroticism Extraversion Openness-Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R Personality Inventory). Statistical analysis was performed with the use of Pearson's linear and Spearman's signed rank correlation coefficients, as well as multiple regression evaluation, assuming the significance level of α = 0.05. It was shown that the overall index of proper eating behaviour increased with increasing neuroticism (r = 0.132) and decreased with increasing openness to experience (r = -0.143). When assessing individual nutritional behaviours, it was indicated, among others, that with increasing neuroticism, athletes more often avoided energy drinks (R = 0.173), and with increasing extraversion, they more frequently consumed vegetables at least twice a day (R = 0.154). At the same time, the consumption of raw vegetables (R = -0.153), 2-3 portions of vegetables and fruit per day (R = -0.157) and the limitation of sweet and salty snacks (R = -0.152) decreased along with an increase in openness. On the other hand, with increasing conscientiousness, the regular consumption of meals (R = 0.186), dairy products (R = 0.143) and the reduction of sweet and salty snacks (R = 0.148) increased. The model built on the basis of the Big Five personality traits explained, to a very large extent (approx. 99%), variance concerning the general index of normal eating behaviour among athletes. The predictive significance of the personality traits presented in the Big Five model was demonstrated in relation to the quality of nutritional choices among Polish athletes competitively training in team sports, which may be used to personalise the dietary education of athletes.

Personality Determinants of Diet Health Quality among an Elite Group of Polish Team Athletes

The aim of the study was to analyse personality determinants of diet health quality among of an elite group of Polish team athletes. The correlations between personality traits of the big five model and the indices of diet health quality (the pro-healthy diet index, pHDI-10 and the non-healthy diet index, nHDI-14) were assessed. Research was carried out among 213 athletes (males), using the beliefs and eating habits questionnaire (Kom-PAN) and the neuroticism extraversion openness personality inventory-revised (NEO-PI-R). Statistical analysis was performed with the use of Pearson's linear and Spearman's signed rank correlation coefficients as well as multiple regression, assuming the significance level of α = 0.05. It has been shown that the pro-healthy diet index (pHDI-10) decreased with increasing Neuroticism, while an increase was noted along with increasing Extraversion. In the case of the non-healthy diet index (nHDI-14) a decrease along with a simultaneous increase in the level of Agreeableness (p < 0.05). Significant (but weak) correlations have been indicated between personality traits and diet health quality. The identified dependencies may be used to personalise the impact of dietary education among athletes.

Sports Supplements User Profile Based on Demographic, Sports, and Psychological Variables: A Cross-Sectional Study

Despite the high prevalence of sports supplement (SS) use, efforts to profile users have not been conclusive. Studies report that 30–95% of recreational exercisers and elite athletes use SS. Research found has mostly focused on demographic and sports variables to profile SS users, but little research has studied the psychological factors that may influence the use of SS. The purpose of this investigation was to classify, describe, and differentiate the profile of users and non-users of SS, considering demographic, sports, and psychological variables. A total of 554 participants completed the questionnaire. Overall, 45% of recreational exercisers and elite athletes reported using supplements. There were significant differences found regarding the use of SS between men and women (51% vs. 49%, p = 0.002; OR = 1.799), and when training 4 or more days per week (p ≤ 0.001; OR = 1.526). Findings regarding the psychological variables have been found in the Adonis Complex. These results indicate that participants with greater concerns regarding physical appearance, tend to be SS users (p = 0.001; OR = 1.200). The results of this study fill a gap in previous research, and provide an approximate profile, including demographic, sports, and psychological variables of SS users.