1
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Li W. Distinct enzymatic strategies for de novo generation of disulfide bonds in membranes. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2023; 58:36-49. [PMID: 37098102 PMCID: PMC10460286 DOI: 10.1080/10409238.2023.2201404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
Abstract
Disulfide bond formation is a catalyzed reaction essential for the folding and stability of proteins in the secretory pathway. In prokaryotes, disulfide bonds are generated by DsbB or VKOR homologs that couple the oxidation of a cysteine pair to quinone reduction. Vertebrate VKOR and VKOR-like enzymes have gained the epoxide reductase activity to support blood coagulation. The core structures of DsbB and VKOR variants share the architecture of a four-transmembrane-helix bundle that supports the coupled redox reaction and a flexible region containing another cysteine pair for electron transfer. Despite considerable similarities, recent high-resolution crystal structures of DsbB and VKOR variants reveal significant differences. DsbB activates the cysteine thiolate by a catalytic triad of polar residues, a reminiscent of classical cysteine/serine proteases. In contrast, bacterial VKOR homologs create a hydrophobic pocket to activate the cysteine thiolate. Vertebrate VKOR and VKOR-like maintain this hydrophobic pocket and further evolved two strong hydrogen bonds to stabilize the reaction intermediates and increase the quinone redox potential. These hydrogen bonds are critical to overcome the higher energy barrier required for epoxide reduction. The electron transfer process of DsbB and VKOR variants uses slow and fast pathways, but their relative contribution may be different in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The quinone is a tightly bound cofactor in DsbB and bacterial VKOR homologs, whereas vertebrate VKOR variants use transient substrate binding to trigger the electron transfer in the slow pathway. Overall, the catalytic mechanisms of DsbB and VKOR variants have fundamental differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weikai Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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2
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Acosta M, Quiroz E, Tovar-Ramírez D, Roberto VP, Dias J, Gavaia PJ, Fernández I. Fish Microbiome Modulation and Convenient Storage of Aquafeeds When Supplemented with Vitamin K1. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12233248. [PMID: 36496769 PMCID: PMC9735498 DOI: 10.3390/ani12233248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin K (VK) is a fat-soluble vitamin necessary for fish metabolism and health. VK stability as dietary component during aquafeed storage and its potential effect on intestinal microbiome in fish have not yet been completely elucidated. The convenient storage conditions of aquafeeds when supplemented with phylloquinone (VK1), as well as its potential effects on the gut microbiota of Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) juveniles, have been explored. Experimental feeds were formulated to contain 0, 250 and 1250 mg kg-1 of VK1 and were stored at different temperatures (4, -20 or -80 °C). VK stability was superior at -20 °C for short-term (7 days) storage, while storing at -80 °C was best suited for long-term storage (up to 3 months). A comparison of bacterial communities from Senegalese sole fed diets containing 0 or 1250 mg kg-1 of VK1 showed that VK1 supplementation decreased the abundance of the Vibrio, Pseudoalteromonas, and Rhodobacterace families. All these microorganisms were previously associated with poor health status in aquatic organisms. These results contribute not only to a greater understanding of the physiological effects of vitamin K, particularly through fish intestinal microbiome, but also establish practical guidelines in the industry for proper aquafeed storage when supplemented with VK1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Acosta
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz 23096, BCS, Mexico
| | - Eduardo Quiroz
- CONACYT-CIBNOR, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, Baja California Sur, La Paz 23096, BCS, Mexico
| | - Dariel Tovar-Ramírez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz 23096, BCS, Mexico
| | - Vânia Palma Roberto
- ABC Collaborative Laboratory, Association for Integrated Aging and Rejuvenation Solutions (ABC CoLAB), 8100-735 Loulé, Portugal
- Algarve Biomedical Center Research Institute (ABC-RI), Campus Gambelas, Bld.2, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Jorge Dias
- SPAROS Ltd., Área Empresarial de Marim, Lote C, 8700-221 Olhão, Portugal
| | - Paulo J. Gavaia
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Campus de Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
- Associação Oceano Verde–GreenCoLab, Campus de Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), CSIC, 36390 Vigo, Spain
- Correspondence: or
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3
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Pes K, Friese A, Cox CJ, Laizé V, Fernández I. Biochemical and molecular responses of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) to short-term exposure to three commonly prescribed drugs. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 168:105309. [PMID: 33798995 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2021.105309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals represent a group of emerging contaminants. The short-term effect (3 and 7 days) of warfarin (1 and 10 mg L-1), dexamethasone (0.392 and 3.92 mg L-1) and imidazole (0.013 and 0.13 mg L-1) exposure was evaluated on mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Total antioxidant status, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase enzyme activities, and the expression of genes involved in the xenobiotic response (ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (abcb1) and several nuclear receptor family J (nr1j) isoforms), were evaluated. All nr1j isoforms are suggested to be the xenobiotic receptor orthologs of the NR1I family. All drugs increased GPx activity and altered the expression of particular nr1j isoforms. Dexamethasone exposure also decreased abcb1 expression. These findings raised some concerns regarding the release of these pharmaceuticals into the aquatic environment. Thus, further studies might be needed to perform an accurate environmental risk assessment of these 3 poorly studied drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Pes
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Annika Friese
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Cymon J Cox
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Aquaculture Research Center, Agro-Technological Institute of Castilla y León (ITACyL), Ctra. Arévalo, s/n. 40196 Zamarramala, Segovia, Spain.
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4
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Identification of the Primary Factors Determining theSpecificity of Human VKORC1 Recognition by Thioredoxin-Fold Proteins. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22020802. [PMID: 33466919 PMCID: PMC7835823 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions control many important biological processes in all organisms, both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. This reaction is usually accomplished by canonical disulphide-based pathways involving a donor enzyme that reduces the oxidised cysteine residues of a target protein, resulting in the cleavage of its disulphide bonds. Focusing on human vitamin K epoxide reductase (hVKORC1) as a target and on four redoxins (protein disulphide isomerase (PDI), endoplasmic reticulum oxidoreductase (ERp18), thioredoxin-related transmembrane protein 1 (Tmx1) and thioredoxin-related transmembrane protein 4 (Tmx4)) as the most probable reducers of VKORC1, a comparative in-silico analysis that concentrates on the similarity and divergence of redoxins in their sequence, secondary and tertiary structure, dynamics, intraprotein interactions and composition of the surface exposed to the target is provided. Similarly, hVKORC1 is analysed in its native state, where two pairs of cysteine residues are covalently linked, forming two disulphide bridges, as a target for Trx-fold proteins. Such analysis is used to derive the putative recognition/binding sites on each isolated protein, and PDI is suggested as the most probable hVKORC1 partner. By probing the alternative orientation of PDI with respect to hVKORC1, the functionally related noncovalent complex formed by hVKORC1 and PDI was found, which is proposed to be a first precursor to probe thiol-disulphide exchange reactions between PDI and hVKORC1.
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5
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Beato S, Toledo-Solís FJ, Fernández I. Vitamin K in Vertebrates' Reproduction: Further Puzzling Pieces of Evidence from Teleost Fish Species. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E1303. [PMID: 32917043 PMCID: PMC7564532 DOI: 10.3390/biom10091303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin K (VK) is a fat-soluble vitamin that vertebrates have to acquire from the diet, since they are not able to de novo synthesize it. VK has been historically known to be required for the control of blood coagulation, and more recently, bone development and homeostasis. Our understanding of the VK metabolism and the VK-related molecular pathways has been also increased, and the two main VK-related pathways-the pregnane X receptor (PXR) transactivation and the co-factor role on the γ-glutamyl carboxylation of the VK dependent proteins-have been thoroughly investigated during the last decades. Although several studies evidenced how VK may have a broader VK biological function than previously thought, including the reproduction, little is known about the specific molecular pathways. In vertebrates, sex differentiation and gametogenesis are tightly regulated processes through a highly complex molecular, cellular and tissue crosstalk. Here, VK metabolism and related pathways, as well as how gametogenesis might be impacted by VK nutritional status, will be reviewed. Critical knowledge gaps and future perspectives on how the different VK-related pathways come into play on vertebrate's reproduction will be identified and proposed. The present review will pave the research progress to warrant a successful reproductive status through VK nutritional interventions as well as towards the establishment of reliable biomarkers for determining proper nutritional VK status in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Beato
- Campus de Vegazana, s/n, Universidad de León (ULE), 24071 León, Spain;
| | - Francisco Javier Toledo-Solís
- Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT, México), Av. Insurgentes Sur 1582, Col. Crédito Constructor, Alcaldía Benito Juárez, C.P. 03940 Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico;
- Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Center for Aquaculture Research, Agrarian Technological Institute of Castile and Leon, Ctra. Arévalo, s/n, 40196 Zamarramala, Segovia, Spain
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6
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Beato S, Marques C, Laizé V, Gavaia PJ, Fernández I. New Insights on Vitamin K Metabolism in Senegalese sole ( Solea senegalensis) Based on Ontogenetic and Tissue-Specific Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase Molecular Data. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E3489. [PMID: 32429051 PMCID: PMC7278968 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin K (VK) is a key nutrient for several biological processes (e.g., blood clotting and bone metabolism). To fulfill VK nutritional requirements, VK action as an activator of pregnane X receptor (Pxr) signaling pathway, and as a co-factor of γ-glutamyl carboxylase enzyme, should be considered. In this regard, VK recycling through vitamin K epoxide reductases (Vkors) is essential and should be better understood. Here, the expression patterns of vitamin K epoxide reductase complex subunit 1 (vkorc1) and vkorc1 like 1 (vkorc1l1) were determined during the larval ontogeny of Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis), and in early juveniles cultured under different physiological conditions. Full-length transcripts for ssvkorc1 and ssvkorc1l1 were determined and peptide sequences were found to be evolutionarily conserved. During larval development, expression of ssvkorc1 showed a slight increase during absence or low feed intake. Expression of ssvkorc1l1 continuously decreased until 24 h post-fertilization, and remained constant afterwards. Both ssvkors were ubiquitously expressed in adult tissues, and highest expression was found in liver for ssvkorc1, and ovary and brain for ssvkorc1l1. Expression of ssvkorc1 and ssvkorc1l1 was differentially regulated under physiological conditions related to fasting and re-feeding, but also under VK dietary supplementation and induced deficiency. The present work provides new and basic molecular clues evidencing how VK metabolism in marine fish is sensitive to nutritional and environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Beato
- Campus de Vegazana, Universidad de León (ULE), s/n, 24071 León, Spain;
| | - Carlos Marques
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (C.M.); (V.L.); (P.J.G.)
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (C.M.); (V.L.); (P.J.G.)
| | - Paulo J. Gavaia
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (C.M.); (V.L.); (P.J.G.)
- Departamento de Ciências Biomédicas e Medicina (DCBM), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Center for Aquaculture Research, Agrarian Technological Institute of Castile and Leon, Ctra. Arévalo, S/n. Zamarramala, 40196 Segovia, Spain
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7
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Landeta C, Boyd D, Beckwith J. Disulfide bond formation in prokaryotes. Nat Microbiol 2018; 3:270-280. [PMID: 29463925 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-017-0106-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Interest in protein disulfide bond formation has recently increased because of the prominent role of disulfide bonds in bacterial virulence and survival. The first discovered pathway that introduces disulfide bonds into cell envelope proteins consists of Escherichia coli enzymes DsbA and DsbB. Since its discovery, variations on the DsbAB pathway have been found in bacteria and archaea, probably reflecting specific requirements for survival in their ecological niches. One variation found amongst Actinobacteria and Cyanobacteria is the replacement of DsbB by a homologue of human vitamin K epoxide reductase. Many Gram-positive bacteria express enzymes involved in disulfide bond formation that are similar, but non-homologous, to DsbAB. While bacterial pathways promote disulfide bond formation in the bacterial cell envelope, some archaeal extremophiles express proteins with disulfide bonds both in the cytoplasm and in the extra-cytoplasmic space, possibly to stabilize proteins in the face of extreme conditions, such as growth at high temperatures. Here, we summarize the diversity of disulfide-bond-catalysing systems across prokaryotic lineages, discuss examples for understanding the biological basis of such systems, and present perspectives on how such systems are enabling advances in biomedical engineering and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Landeta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Dana Boyd
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jon Beckwith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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8
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Abstract
Cysteine thiols are among the most reactive functional groups in proteins, and their pairing in disulfide linkages is a common post-translational modification in proteins entering the secretory pathway. This modest amino acid alteration, the mere removal of a pair of hydrogen atoms from juxtaposed cysteine residues, contrasts with the substantial changes that characterize most other post-translational reactions. However, the wide variety of proteins that contain disulfides, the profound impact of cross-linking on the behavior of the protein polymer, the numerous and diverse players in intracellular pathways for disulfide formation, and the distinct biological settings in which disulfide bond formation can take place belie the simplicity of the process. Here we lay the groundwork for appreciating the mechanisms and consequences of disulfide bond formation in vivo by reviewing chemical principles underlying cysteine pairing and oxidation. We then show how enzymes tune redox-active cofactors and recruit oxidants to improve the specificity and efficiency of disulfide formation. Finally, we discuss disulfide bond formation in a cellular context and identify important principles that contribute to productive thiol oxidation in complex, crowded, dynamic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Fass
- Department of Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science , Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Colin Thorpe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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9
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Czogalla KJ, Biswas A, Höning K, Hornung V, Liphardt K, Watzka M, Oldenburg J. Warfarin and vitamin K compete for binding to Phe55 in human VKOR. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2016; 24:77-85. [PMID: 27941861 DOI: 10.1038/nsmb.3338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR) catalyzes the reduction of vitamin K quinone and vitamin K 2,3-epoxide, a process essential to sustain γ-carboxylation of vitamin K-dependent proteins. VKOR is also a therapeutic target of warfarin, a treatment for thrombotic disorders. However, the structural and functional basis of vitamin K reduction and the antagonism of warfarin inhibition remain elusive. Here, we identified putative binding sites of both K vitamers and warfarin on human VKOR. The predicted warfarin-binding site was verified by shifted dose-response curves of specified mutated residues. We used CRISPR-Cas9-engineered HEK 293T cells to assess the vitamin K quinone and vitamin K 2,3-epoxide reductase activities of VKOR variants to characterize the vitamin K naphthoquinone head- and isoprenoid side chain-binding regions. Our results challenge the prevailing concept of noncompetitive warfarin inhibition because K vitamers and warfarin share binding sites on VKOR that include Phe55, a key residue binding either the substrate or inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin J Czogalla
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Arijit Biswas
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Klara Höning
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Veit Hornung
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,Gene Center and Department of Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Kerstin Liphardt
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Matthias Watzka
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,Center for Rare Diseases Bonn (ZSEB), University Clinic Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Johannes Oldenburg
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,Center for Rare Diseases Bonn (ZSEB), University Clinic Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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10
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Oldenburg J, Watzka M, Bevans CG. VKORC1 and VKORC1L1: Why do Vertebrates Have Two Vitamin K 2,3-Epoxide Reductases? Nutrients 2015; 7:6250-80. [PMID: 26264021 PMCID: PMC4555119 DOI: 10.3390/nu7085280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Among all cellular life on earth, with the exception of yeasts, fungi, and some prokaryotes, VKOR family homologs are ubiquitously encoded in nuclear genomes, suggesting ancient and important biological roles for these enzymes. Despite single gene and whole genome duplications on the largest evolutionary timescales, and the fact that most gene duplications eventually result in loss of one copy, it is surprising that all jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes) have retained two paralogous VKOR genes. Both VKOR paralogs function as entry points for nutritionally acquired and recycled K vitamers in the vitamin K cycle. Here we present phylogenetic evidence that the human paralogs likely arose earlier than gnathostomes, possibly in the ancestor of crown chordates. We ask why gnathostomes have maintained these paralogs throughout evolution and present a current summary of what we know. In particular, we look to published studies about tissue- and developmental stage-specific expression, enzymatic function, phylogeny, biological roles and associated pathways that together suggest subfunctionalization as a major influence in evolutionary fixation of both paralogs. Additionally, we investigate on what evolutionary timescale the paralogs arose and under what circumstances in order to gain insight into the biological raison d’être for both VKOR paralogs in gnathostomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Oldenburg
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, Bonn 53105, Germany.
| | - Matthias Watzka
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, Bonn 53105, Germany.
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