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Yoo C, Xing D, Gonzalez DE, Jenkins V, Nottingham K, Dickerson B, Leonard M, Ko J, Lewis MH, Faries M, Kephart W, Purpura M, Jäger R, Wells SD, Liao K, Sowinski R, Rasmussen CJ, Kreider RB. Paraxanthine provides greater improvement in cognitive function than caffeine after performing a 10-km run. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2024; 21:2352779. [PMID: 38725238 PMCID: PMC11089923 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2024.2352779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/15/2024] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Intense exercise promotes fatigue and can impair cognitive function, particularly toward the end of competition when decision-making is often critical for success. For this reason, athletes often ingest caffeinated energy drinks prior to or during exercise to help them maintain focus, reaction time, and cognitive function during competition. However, caffeine habituation and genetic sensitivity to caffeine (CA) limit efficacy. Paraxanthine (PX) is a metabolite of caffeine reported to possess nootropic properties. This study examined whether ingestion of PX with and without CA affects pre- or post-exercise cognitive function. METHODS 12 trained runners were randomly assigned to consume in a double-blind, randomized, and crossover manner 400 mg of a placebo (PL); 200 mg of PL + 200 mg of CA; 200 mg of PL + 200 mg of PX (ENFINITY®, Ingenious Ingredients); or 200 mg PX + 200 mg of CA (PX+CA) with a 7-14-day washout between treatments. Participants donated fasting blood samples and completed pre-supplementation (PRE) side effects questionnaires, the Berg-Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (BCST), and the Psychomotor Vigilance Task Test (PVTT). Participants then ingested the assigned treatment and rested for 60 minutes, repeated tests (PRE-EX), performed a 10-km run on a treadmill at a competition pace, and then repeated tests (POST-EX). Data were analyzed using General Linear Model (GLM) univariate analyses with repeated measures and percent changes from baseline with 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS BCST correct responses in the PX treatment increased from PRE-EX to POST-EX (6.8% [1.5, 12.1], p = 0.012). The error rate in the PL (23.5 [-2.8, 49.8] %, p = 0.078) and CA treatment (31.5 [5.2, 57.8] %, p = 0.02) increased from PRE-EX values with POST-EX errors tending to be lower with PX treatment compared to CA (-35.7 [-72.9, 1.4] %, p = 0.059). POST-EX perseverative errors with PAR rules were significantly lower with PX treatment than with CA (-26.9 [-50.5, -3.4] %, p = 0.026). Vigilance analysis revealed a significant interaction effect in Trial #2 mean reaction time values (p = 0.049, η p 2 = 0.134, moderate to large effect) with POST-EX reaction times tending to be faster with PX and CA treatment. POST-EX mean reaction time of all trials with PX treatment was significantly faster than PL (-23.2 [-43.4, -2.4] %, p = 0.029) and PX+CA (-29.6 [-50.3, -8.80] %, p = 0.006) treatments. There was no evidence that PX ingestion adversely affected ratings of side effects associated with stimulant intake or clinical blood markers. CONCLUSIONS Results provide some evidence that pre-exercise PX ingestion improves prefrontal cortex function, attenuates attentional decline, mitigates cognitive fatigue, and improves reaction time and vigilance. Adding CA to PX did not provide additional benefits. Therefore, PX ingestion may serve as a nootropic alternative to CA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choongsung Yoo
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Dante Xing
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Drew E. Gonzalez
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Victoria Jenkins
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Kay Nottingham
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Broderick Dickerson
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Megan Leonard
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Joungbo Ko
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Megan H. Lewis
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Mark Faries
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
- Texas A&M University, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Wesley Kephart
- University of Wisconsin – Whitewater, Department of Kinesiology, Whitewater, WI, USA
| | - Martin Purpura
- Increnovo LLC, Milwaukee, WI, USA
- Ingenious Ingredients LP, Lewisville, TX, USA
| | - Ralf Jäger
- Increnovo LLC, Milwaukee, WI, USA
- Ingenious Ingredients LP, Lewisville, TX, USA
| | | | - Kylin Liao
- Ingenious Ingredients LP, Lewisville, TX, USA
| | - Ryan Sowinski
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Christopher J. Rasmussen
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Richard B. Kreider
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, College Station, TX, USA
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Leonard M, Dickerson B, Estes L, Gonzalez DE, Jenkins V, Johnson S, Xing D, Yoo C, Ko J, Purpura M, Jäger R, Faries M, Kephart W, Sowinski R, Rasmussen CJ, Kreider RB. Acute and Repeated Ashwagandha Supplementation Improves Markers of Cognitive Function and Mood. Nutrients 2024; 16:1813. [PMID: 38931168 PMCID: PMC11207027 DOI: 10.3390/nu16121813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ashwagandha has been reported to reduce stress and attenuate cognitive decline associated with inflammation and neurodegeneration in clinical populations. However, the effects as a potential nootropic nutrient in younger populations are unclear. This study examined the effects of liposomal ashwagandha supplementation on cognitive function, mood, and markers of health and safety in healthy young men and women. METHODS 59 men and women (22.7 ± 7 yrs., 74.9 ± 16 kg, 26.2 ± 5 BMI) fasted for 12 h, donated a fasting blood sample, and were administered the COMPASS cognitive function test battery (Word Recall, Word recognition, Choice Reaction Time Task, Picture Recognition, Digit Vigilance Task, Corsi Block test, Stroop test) and profile of mood states (POMS). In a randomized and double-blind manner, participants were administered 225 mg of a placebo (Gum Arabic) or ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) root and leaf extract coated with a liposomal covering. After 60-min, participants repeated cognitive assessments. Participants continued supplementation (225 mg/d) for 30 days and then returned to the lab to repeat the experiment. Data were analyzed using a general linear model (GLM) univariate analysis with repeated measures and pairwise comparisons of mean changes from baseline with 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS Ashwagandha supplementation improved acute and/or 30-day measures of Word Recall (correct and recalled attempts), Choice Reaction Time (targets identified), Picture Recognition ("yes" correct responses, correct and overall reaction time), Digit Vigilance (correct reaction time), Stroop Color-Word (congruent words identified, reaction time), and POMS (tension and fatigue) from baseline more consistently with several differences observed between groups. CONCLUSION Results support contentions that ashwagandha supplementation (225 mg) may improve some measures of memory, attention, vigilance, attention, and executive function while decreasing perceptions of tension and fatigue in younger healthy individuals. Retrospectively registered clinical trial ISRCTN58680760.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Leonard
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Broderick Dickerson
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Landry Estes
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Drew E. Gonzalez
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Victoria Jenkins
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Sarah Johnson
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Dante Xing
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Choongsung Yoo
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Joungbo Ko
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Martin Purpura
- Increnovo LLC, Whitefish Bay, WI 53217, USA; (M.P.); (R.J.)
| | - Ralf Jäger
- Increnovo LLC, Whitefish Bay, WI 53217, USA; (M.P.); (R.J.)
| | - Mark Faries
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
- Texas A&M AgriLife Extension, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Wesley Kephart
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin—Whitewater, Whitewater, WI 53190, USA;
| | - Ryan Sowinski
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Christopher J. Rasmussen
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
| | - Richard B. Kreider
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.L.); (B.D.); (L.E.); (D.E.G.); (V.J.); (S.J.); (D.X.); (C.Y.); (J.K.); (M.F.); (R.S.); (C.J.R.)
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Mabrey G, Koozehchian MS, Newton AT, Naderi A, Forbes SC, Haddad M. The Effect of Creatine Nitrate and Caffeine Individually or Combined on Exercise Performance and Cognitive Function: A Randomized, Crossover, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients 2024; 16:766. [PMID: 38542677 PMCID: PMC10974193 DOI: 10.3390/nu16060766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
This study examined the effect of creatine nitrate and caffeine alone and combined on exercise performance and cognitive function in resistance-trained athletes. In a double-blind, randomized crossover trial, twelve resistance-trained male athletes were supplemented with 7 days of creatine nitrate (5 g/day), caffeine (400 mg/day), and a combination of creatine nitrate and caffeine. The study involved twelve resistance-trained male athletes who initially provided a blood sample for comprehensive safety analysis, including tests for key enzymes and a lipid profile, and then performed standardized resistance exercises-bench and leg press at 70% 1RM-and a Wingate anaerobic power test. Cognitive function and cardiovascular responses were also examined forty-five minutes after supplementation. Creatine nitrate and caffeine that were co-ingested significantly enhanced cognitive function, as indicated by improved scores in the Stroop Word-Color Interference test (p = 0.04; effect size = 0.163). Co-ingestion was more effective than caffeine alone in enhancing cognitive performance. In contrast, no significant enhancements in exercise performance were observed. The co-ingestion of creatine nitrate and caffeine improved cognitive function, particularly in cognitive interference tasks, without altering short-term exercise performance. Furthermore, no adverse events were reported. Overall, the co-ingestion of creatine nitrate and caffeine appears to enhance cognition without any reported side effects for up to seven days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Mabrey
- Department of Kinesiology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265, USA; (G.M.); (A.T.N.)
| | - Majid S. Koozehchian
- Department of Kinesiology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265, USA; (G.M.); (A.T.N.)
| | - Andrew T. Newton
- Department of Kinesiology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265, USA; (G.M.); (A.T.N.)
| | - Alireza Naderi
- Department of Sport Physiology, Islamic Azad University, Boroujerd 1706294, Iran;
| | - Scott C. Forbes
- Department of Physical Education Studies, Faculty of Education, Brandon University, Brandon, MB R7A 6A9, Canada;
| | - Monoem Haddad
- Physical Education Department, College of Education, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar;
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Leonard M, Maury J, Dickerson B, Gonzalez DE, Kendra J, Jenkins V, Nottingham K, Yoo C, Xing D, Ko J, Pradelles R, Faries M, Kephart W, Sowinski R, Rasmussen CJ, Kreider RB. Effects of Dietary Supplementation of a Microalgae Extract Containing Fucoxanthin Combined with Guarana on Cognitive Function and Gaming Performance. Nutrients 2023; 15:nu15081918. [PMID: 37111136 PMCID: PMC10142384 DOI: 10.3390/nu15081918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Esports competitive gaming requires selective visual attention, memory, quick judgment, and an ability to sustain psychomotor performance over time. Fucoxanthin is a carotenoid, found in specific microalgae varieties such as Phaeodactylum tricornutum (PT), that has been purported to possess nootropic and neuroprotective effects through its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. This study evaluated whether acute and 30-day supplementation of an extract of PT from microalgae combined with guarana (a natural source of caffeine) affects cognitive function in gamers. MATERIALS AND METHODS In a double-blind, placebo-controlled manner, 61 experienced gamers (21.7 ± 4.1 years, 73 ± 13 kg) were randomly assigned to ingest a placebo (PL), a low-dose (LD) supplement containing 440 mg of PT extract including 1% fucoxanthin +500 mg of guarana containing 40-44 mg caffeine (MicroPhyt™, Microphyt, Baillargues, FR), or a high-dose (HD) supplement containing 880 mg of PT extract +500 mg of guarana for 30 days. At baseline, cognitive function tests were administered before supplementation, 15 min post-supplementation, and after 60 min of competitive gameplay with participants' most played video game. Participants continued supplementation for 30 days and then repeated pre-supplementation and post-gaming cognitive function tests. General linear model univariate analyses with repeated measures and changes from baseline with 95% confidence intervals were used to analyze data. RESULTS There was some evidence that acute and 30-day ingestion of the PT extract from microalgae with guarana improved reaction times, reasoning, learning, executive control, attention shifting (cognitive flexibility), and impulsiveness. While some effects were seen after acute ingestion, the greatest impact appeared after 30 days of supplementation, with some benefits seen in the LD and HD groups. Moreover, there was evidence that both doses of the PT extract from microalgae with guarana may support mood state after acute and 30-day supplementation. Registered clinical trial #NCT04851899.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Leonard
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Jonathan Maury
- Microphyt, Research & Development Department, 34670 Baillargues, France
| | - Broderick Dickerson
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Drew E Gonzalez
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Jacob Kendra
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Victoria Jenkins
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Kay Nottingham
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Choongsung Yoo
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Dante Xing
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Joungbo Ko
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Rémi Pradelles
- Microphyt, Research & Development Department, 34670 Baillargues, France
| | - Mark Faries
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Texas A&M AgriLife Extension, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Wesley Kephart
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater, WI 53190, USA
| | - Ryan Sowinski
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Christopher J Rasmussen
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Richard B Kreider
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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Escalante G, Gonzalez AM, St Mart D, Torres M, Echols J, Islas M, Schoenfeld BJ. Analysis of the efficacy, safety, and cost of alternative forms of creatine available for purchase on Amazon.com: are label claims supported by science? Heliyon 2022; 8:e12113. [PMID: 36544833 PMCID: PMC9761713 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Creatine monohydrate (CM) is an established and effective dietary supplement, but it is not the only form of creatine. We analyzed forms of creatine for sale on Amazon.com" title = "http://Amazon.com">Amazon.com and evaluated if the advertised claims are supported by the available scientific evidence. We also analyzed the cost per gram of the forms of creatine. A total of 175 creatine supplements were included and we reported the total creatine content per serving, form(s) of creatine in products, product claims, and prevalence of products third party certified. The identified products contained 16 forms of creatine other than CM. The prevalence of products containing functional ingredients with CM or forms of creatine was 29.7%, and the prevalence of products containing blends of different forms of creatine was 21.7%. Only 8% of products were third party certified. The products using only CM (n = 91) had a mean price per gram of $0.12 ± 0.08, whereas products using only other forms of creatine (n = 32) had a mean price per gram of $0.26 ± 0.17. Approximately 88% of alternative creatine products in this study are classified as having limited to no evidence to support bioavailability, efficacy, and safety.
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Fazio C, Elder CL, Harris MM. Efficacy of Alternative Forms of Creatine Supplementation on Improving Performance and Body Composition in Healthy Subjects: A Systematic Review. J Strength Cond Res 2022; 36:2663-2670. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Kreider RB, Jäger R, Purpura M. Bioavailability, Efficacy, Safety, and Regulatory Status of Creatine and Related Compounds: A Critical Review. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14051035. [PMID: 35268011 PMCID: PMC8912867 DOI: 10.3390/nu14051035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2011, we published a paper providing an overview about the bioavailability, efficacy, and regulatory status of creatine monohydrate (CrM), as well as other “novel forms” of creatine that were being marketed at the time. This paper concluded that no other purported form of creatine had been shown to be a more effective source of creatine than CrM, and that CrM was recognized by international regulatory authorities as safe for use in dietary supplements. Moreover, that most purported “forms” of creatine that were being marketed at the time were either less bioavailable, less effective, more expensive, and/or not sufficiently studied in terms of safety and/or efficacy. We also provided examples of several “forms” of creatine that were being marketed that were not bioavailable sources of creatine or less effective than CrM in comparative effectiveness trials. We had hoped that this paper would encourage supplement manufacturers to use CrM in dietary supplements given the overwhelming efficacy and safety profile. Alternatively, encourage them to conduct research to show their purported “form” of creatine was a bioavailable, effective, and safe source of creatine before making unsubstantiated claims of greater efficacy and/or safety than CrM. Unfortunately, unsupported misrepresentations about the effectiveness and safety of various “forms” of creatine have continued. The purpose of this critical review is to: (1) provide an overview of the physiochemical properties, bioavailability, and safety of CrM; (2) describe the data needed to substantiate claims that a “novel form” of creatine is a bioavailable, effective, and safe source of creatine; (3) examine whether other marketed sources of creatine are more effective sources of creatine than CrM; (4) provide an update about the regulatory status of CrM and other purported sources of creatine sold as dietary supplements; and (5) provide guidance regarding the type of research needed to validate that a purported “new form” of creatine is a bioavailable, effective and safe source of creatine for dietary supplements. Based on this analysis, we categorized forms of creatine that are being sold as dietary supplements as either having strong, some, or no evidence of bioavailability and safety. As will be seen, CrM continues to be the only source of creatine that has substantial evidence to support bioavailability, efficacy, and safety. Additionally, CrM is the source of creatine recommended explicitly by professional societies and organizations and approved for use in global markets as a dietary ingredient or food additive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B. Kreider
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-972-458-1498
| | - Ralf Jäger
- Increnovo LLC, Milwaukee, WI 53202, USA; (R.J.); (M.P.)
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Dose-Response of Paraxanthine on Cognitive Function: A Double Blind, Placebo Controlled, Crossover Trial. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13124478. [PMID: 34960030 PMCID: PMC8708375 DOI: 10.3390/nu13124478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Paraxanthine (PXN) is a metabolite of caffeine that has recently been reported to enhance cognition at a dose of 200 mg. Objective: To determine the acute and short-term (7-day) effects of varying doses of PXN on cognitive function and side effects. Methods: In a double blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, and counterbalanced manner, 12 healthy male and female volunteers (22.7 ± 4 years, 165 ± 7 cm, 66.5 ± 11 kg, 24.4 ± 3 kg/m2) ingested 200 mg of a placebo (PLA), 50 mg of PXN (ENFINITY™, Ingenious Ingredients, L.P.) + 150 mg PLA, 100 mg PXN + 100 mg PLA, or 200 mg of PXN. With each treatment experiment, participants completed side effect questionnaires and donated a fasting blood sample. Participants then performed a series of tests assessing cognition, executive function, memory, and reaction time. Participants then ingested one capsule of PLA or PXN treatments. Participants then completed side effects and cognitive function tests after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 h of treatment ingestion. Participants continued ingesting one dose of the assigned treatment daily for 6-days and returned to the lab on day 7 to donate a fasting blood sample, assess side effects, and perform cognitive function tests. Participants repeated the experiment while ingesting remaining treatments in a counterbalanced manner after at least a 7-day washout period until all treatments were assessed. Results: The Sternberg Task Test (STT) 4-Letter Length Present Reaction Time tended to differ among groups (p = 0.06). Assessment of mean changes from baseline with 95% CI’s revealed several significant differences among treatments in Berg-Wisconsin Card Sorting Correct Responses, Preservative Errors (PEBL), and Preservative Errors (PAR Rules). There was also evidence of significant differences among treatments in the Go/No-Go Task tests in Mean Accuracy as well as several time points of increasing complexity among STT variables. Finally, there was evidence from Psychomotor Vigilance Task Test assessment that response time improved over the series of 20 trials assessed as well as during the 6-h experiment in the PXN treatment. Acute and short-term benefits compared to PLA were seen with each dose studied but more consistent effects appeared to be at 100 mg and 200 mg doses. No significant differences were observed among treatments in clinical chemistry panels or the frequency or severity of reported side effects. Results provide evidence that acute ingestion of 100 mg and 200 mg of PXN may affect some measures of cognition, memory, reasoning, and response time as well as help sustain attention. Additionally, that acute and daily ingestion of PXN for 7 days is not associated with any clinically significant side effects. Conclusions: PXN may serve as an effective nootropic agent at doses as low as 50 mg.
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Duan BB, Xu JW, Xing T, Li JL, Zhang L, Gao F. Creatine nitrate supplementation strengthens energy status and delays glycolysis of broiler muscle via inhibition of LKB1/AMPK pathway. Poult Sci 2021; 101:101653. [PMID: 35007932 PMCID: PMC8749301 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of dietary creatine nitrate (CrN) on growth performance, meat quality, energy status, glycolysis, and related gene expression of liver kinase B1/AMP-activated protein kinase (LKB1/AMPK) pathway in Pectoralis major (PM) muscle of broilers. A total of 240 male Arbor Acres broilers (28-day-old) were randomly allocated to one of 5 dietary treatments: the basal diet (control group), and the basal diets supplemented with 600 mg/kg guanidinoacetic acid (GAA), 300, 600, or 900 mg/kg CrN (identified as GAA600, CrN300, CrN600, or CrN900, respectively). We found that dietary GAA and CrN supplementation for 14 d from d 28 to 42 did not affect broiler growth performance, carcass traits, and textural characteristics of breast muscle. GAA600, CrN600, and CrN900 treatments increased pH24h and decreased drip loss of PM muscle compared with the control (P < 0.05). The PM muscles of CrN600 and CrN900 groups showed higher glycogen concentration and lower lactic acid concentration accompanied by lower activities of phosphofructokinase (PFK), pyruvate kinase (PK), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (P < 0.05). Simultaneously, GAA600 and all CrN treatments increased concentration of muscle creatine, phosphocreatine (PCr) and ATP, and decreased AMP concentration and AMP/ATP ratio (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, the concentrations of muscle creatine, PCr, and ATP were increased linearly, while muscle AMP concentration and AMP/ATP ratio were decreased linearly and quadratic as the dose of CrN increased (P < 0.05). GAA600, CrN600, and CrN900 treatments upregulated mRNA expression of CreaT in PM muscle, and CrN600 and CrN900 treatments downregulated GAMT expression in liver and PM muscle compared with the control or GAA600 groups (P < 0.05). The mRNA expression of muscle LKB1, AMPKα1, and AMPKα2 was downregulated linearly in response to the increasing CrN level (P < 0.05). Overall, CrN showed better efficacy on strengthening muscle energy status and improve meat quality than GAA at the some dose. These results indicate that CrN may be a potential replacement for GAA as a new creatine supplement.
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Affiliation(s)
- B B Duan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Origin Food Production and Safety Guarantee, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Nutrition and Animal Health, Jiangsu Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of Meat Production and Processing, Quality and Safety Control, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - J W Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Origin Food Production and Safety Guarantee, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Nutrition and Animal Health, Jiangsu Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of Meat Production and Processing, Quality and Safety Control, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - T Xing
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Origin Food Production and Safety Guarantee, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Nutrition and Animal Health, Jiangsu Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of Meat Production and Processing, Quality and Safety Control, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - J L Li
- Institute of Agricultural Products Processing, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - L Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Origin Food Production and Safety Guarantee, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Nutrition and Animal Health, Jiangsu Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of Meat Production and Processing, Quality and Safety Control, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China.
| | - F Gao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Origin Food Production and Safety Guarantee, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Nutrition and Animal Health, Jiangsu Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of Meat Production and Processing, Quality and Safety Control, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
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Nutrition and physical activity interventions for the general population with and without cardiometabolic risk: a scoping review. Public Health Nutr 2021; 24:4718-4736. [PMID: 34030758 DOI: 10.1017/s1368980021002184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this scoping review was to examine the research question: In the adults with or without cardiometabolic risk, what is the availability of literature examining interventions to improve or maintain nutrition and physical activity-related outcomes? Sub-topics included: (1) behaviour counseling or coaching from a dietitian/nutritionist or exercise practitioner, (2) mobile applications to improve nutrition and physical activity and (3) nutritional ergogenic aids. DESIGN The current study is a scoping review. A literature search of the Medline Complete, CINAHL Complete, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and other databases was conducted to identify articles published in the English language from January 2005 until May 2020. Data were synthesised using bubble charts and heat maps. SETTING Out-patient, community and workplace. PARTICIPANTS Adults with or without cardiometabolic risk factors living in economically developed countries. RESULTS Searches resulted in 19 474 unique articles and 170 articles were included in this scoping review, including one guideline, thirty systematic reviews (SR), 134 randomised controlled trials and five non-randomised trials. Mobile applications (n 37) as well as ergogenic aids (n 87) have been addressed in several recent studies, including SR. While primary research has examined the effect of individual-level nutrition and physical activity counseling or coaching from a dietitian/nutritionist and/or exercise practitioner (n 48), interventions provided by these practitioners have not been recently synthesised in SR. CONCLUSION SR of behaviour counseling or coaching provided by a dietitian/nutritionist and/or exercise practitioner are needed and can inform practice for practitioners working with individuals who are healthy or have cardiometabolic risk.
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Bonilla DA, Kreider RB, Stout JR, Forero DA, Kerksick CM, Roberts MD, Rawson ES. Metabolic Basis of Creatine in Health and Disease: A Bioinformatics-Assisted Review. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13041238. [PMID: 33918657 PMCID: PMC8070484 DOI: 10.3390/nu13041238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Creatine (Cr) is a ubiquitous molecule that is synthesized mainly in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas. Most of the Cr pool is found in tissues with high-energy demands. Cr enters target cells through a specific symporter called Na+/Cl−-dependent Cr transporter (CRT). Once within cells, creatine kinase (CK) catalyzes the reversible transphosphorylation reaction between [Mg2+:ATP4−]2− and Cr to produce phosphocreatine (PCr) and [Mg2+:ADP3−]−. We aimed to perform a comprehensive and bioinformatics-assisted review of the most recent research findings regarding Cr metabolism. Specifically, several public databases, repositories, and bioinformatics tools were utilized for this endeavor. Topics of biological complexity ranging from structural biology to cellular dynamics were addressed herein. In this sense, we sought to address certain pre-specified questions including: (i) What happens when creatine is transported into cells? (ii) How is the CK/PCr system involved in cellular bioenergetics? (iii) How is the CK/PCr system compartmentalized throughout the cell? (iv) What is the role of creatine amongst different tissues? and (v) What is the basis of creatine transport? Under the cellular allostasis paradigm, the CK/PCr system is physiologically essential for life (cell survival, growth, proliferation, differentiation, and migration/motility) by providing an evolutionary advantage for rapid, local, and temporal support of energy- and mechanical-dependent processes. Thus, we suggest the CK/PCr system acts as a dynamic biosensor based on chemo-mechanical energy transduction, which might explain why dysregulation in Cr metabolism contributes to a wide range of diseases besides the mitigating effect that Cr supplementation may have in some of these disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego A. Bonilla
- Research Division, Dynamical Business & Science Society–DBSS International SAS, Bogotá 110861, Colombia
- Research Group in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Bogotá 110311, Colombia
- Research Group in Physical Activity, Sports and Health Sciences (GICAFS), Universidad de Córdoba, Montería 230002, Colombia
- kDNA Genomics, Joxe Mari Korta Research Center, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +57-320-335-2050
| | - Richard B. Kreider
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
| | - Jeffrey R. Stout
- Physiology of Work and Exercise Response (POWER) Laboratory, Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA;
| | - Diego A. Forero
- Professional Program in Sport Training, School of Health and Sport Sciences, Fundación Universitaria del Área Andina, Bogotá 111221, Colombia;
| | - Chad M. Kerksick
- Exercise and Performance Nutrition Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, Lindenwood University, Saint Charles, MO 63301, USA;
| | - Michael D. Roberts
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA;
- Edward via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Eric S. Rawson
- Department of Health, Nutrition and Exercise Science, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA 17055, USA;
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Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, Gualano B, Jagim AR, Kreider RB, Rawson ES, Smith-Ryan AE, VanDusseldorp TA, Willoughby DS, Ziegenfuss TN. Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show? J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2021; 18:13. [PMID: 33557850 PMCID: PMC7871530 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-021-00412-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Supplementing with creatine is very popular amongst athletes and exercising individuals for improving muscle mass, performance and recovery. Accumulating evidence also suggests that creatine supplementation produces a variety of beneficial effects in older and patient populations. Furthermore, evidence-based research shows that creatine supplementation is relatively well tolerated, especially at recommended dosages (i.e. 3-5 g/day or 0.1 g/kg of body mass/day). Although there are over 500 peer-refereed publications involving creatine supplementation, it is somewhat surprising that questions regarding the efficacy and safety of creatine still remain. These include, but are not limited to: 1. Does creatine lead to water retention? 2. Is creatine an anabolic steroid? 3. Does creatine cause kidney damage/renal dysfunction? 4. Does creatine cause hair loss / baldness? 5. Does creatine lead to dehydration and muscle cramping? 6. Is creatine harmful for children and adolescents? 7. Does creatine increase fat mass? 8. Is a creatine 'loading-phase' required? 9. Is creatine beneficial for older adults? 10. Is creatine only useful for resistance / power type activities? 11. Is creatine only effective for males? 12. Are other forms of creatine similar or superior to monohydrate and is creatine stable in solutions/beverages? To answer these questions, an internationally renowned team of research experts was formed to perform an evidence-based scientific evaluation of the literature regarding creatine supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Antonio
- Department of Health and Human Performance, Nova Southeastern University, Davie, Florida, USA.
| | - Darren G Candow
- Faculty of Kinesiology and Health Studies, University of Regina, Regina, Canada
| | - Scott C Forbes
- Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Education, Brandon University, Brandon, MB, Canada
| | - Bruno Gualano
- Applied Physiology & Nutrition Research Group; School of Medicine, FMUSP, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Andrew R Jagim
- Sports Medicine Department, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, WI, USA
| | - Richard B Kreider
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Department of Health & Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
| | - Eric S Rawson
- Department of Health, Nutrition, and Exercise Science, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA
| | - Abbie E Smith-Ryan
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Trisha A VanDusseldorp
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, USA
| | - Darryn S Willoughby
- School of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor, Belton, TX, USA
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Yatsutani H, Mori H, Ito H, Hayashi N, Girard O, Goto K. Endocrine and Metabolic Responses to Endurance Exercise Under Hot and Hypoxic Conditions. Front Physiol 2020; 11:932. [PMID: 32973541 PMCID: PMC7466541 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose We explored the effect of heat stress during an acute endurance exercise session in hypoxia on endocrine and metabolic responses. Methods A total of 12 healthy males cycled at a constant workload (60% of the power output associated with their maximal oxygen uptake under each respective condition) for 60 min in three different environments: exercise under hot and hypoxia (H+H; fraction of inspiratory oxygen or FiO2: 14.5%, 32°C), exercise under hypoxia (HYP; FiO2: 14.5%, 23°C), and exercise under normoxia (NOR; FiO2: 20.9%, 23°C). After completing the exercise, participants remained in the chamber for 3 h to evaluate metabolic and endocrine responses under each environment. Changes in muscle oxygenation (only during exercise), blood variables, arterial oxygen saturation, and muscle temperature were determined up to 3 h after exercise. Results Serum erythropoietin (EPO) level was increased to similar levels in both H+H and HYP at 3 h after exercise compared with before exercise (P < 0.05), whereas no significant increase was found under NOR. No significant difference between H+H and HYP was observed in the serum EPO level, blood lactate level, or muscle oxygenation at any time (P > 0.05). Exercise-induced serum growth hormone (GH) elevation was significantly greater in H+H compared with HYP (P < 0.05) and HYP showed significantly lower value than NOR (P < 0.05). Arterial oxygen saturation during exercise was significantly lower in H+H and HYP compared with NOR (P < 0.05). Furthermore, H+H showed higher value compared with HYP (P < 0.05). Conclusion The serum EPO level increased significantly with endurance exercise in hypoxia. However, the addition of heat stress during endurance exercise in hypoxia did not augment the EPO response up to 3 h after completion of exercise. Exercise-induced GH elevation was significantly augmented when the hot exposure was combined during endurance exercise in hypoxia. Muscle oxygenation levels during endurance exercise did not differ significantly among the conditions. These findings suggest that combined hot and hypoxic stresses during endurance exercise caused some modifications of metabolic and endocrine regulations compared with the same exercise in hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruka Yatsutani
- Graduate School of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Japan
| | - Hisashi Mori
- School of Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, Kobe, Japan
| | - Hiroto Ito
- Graduate School of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Japan
| | - Nanako Hayashi
- Graduate School of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Japan
| | - Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Kazushige Goto
- Graduate School of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Japan
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Vargas S, Petro JL, Romance R, Bonilla DA, Florido MÁ, Kreider RB, Schoenfeld BJ, Benítez-Porres J. Comparison of changes in lean body mass with a strength- versus muscle endurance-based resistance training program. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119:933-940. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04082-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Vargas S, Romance R, Petro JL, Bonilla DA, Galancho I, Espinar S, Kreider RB, Benítez-Porres J. Efficacy of ketogenic diet on body composition during resistance training in trained men: a randomized controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2018; 15:31. [PMID: 29986720 PMCID: PMC6038311 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-018-0236-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ketogenic diets (KD) have become a popular method of promoting weight loss. More recently, some have recommended that athletes adhere to ketogenic diets in order to optimize changes in body composition during training. This study evaluated the efficacy of an 8-week ketogenic diet (KD) during energy surplus and resistance training (RT) protocol on body composition in trained men. METHODS Twenty-four healthy men (age 30 ± 4.7 years; weight 76.7 ± 8.2 kg; height 174.3 ± 19.7 cm) performed an 8-week RT program. Participants were randomly assigned to a KD group (n = 9), non-KD group (n = 10, NKD), and control group (n = 5, CG) in hyperenergetic condition. Body composition changes were measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Compliance with the ketosis state was monitored by measuring urinary ketones weekly. Data were analyzed using a univariate, multivariate and repeated measures general linear model (GLM) statistics. RESULTS There was a significant reduction in fat mass (mean change, 95% CI; p-value; Cohen's d effect size [ES]; - 0.8 [- 1.6, - 0.1] kg; p < 0.05; ES = - 0.46) and visceral adipose tissue (- 96.5 [- 159.0, - 34.0] g; p < 0.05; ES = - 0.84), while no significant changes were observed in the NKD and CG in fat mass (- 0,5 [- 1.2, 0.3] kg; p > 0.05; ES = - 0.17 and - 0,5 [- 2.4, 1.3] kg; p > 0.05; ES = - 0.12, respectively) or visceral adipose tissue (- 33.8 [- 90.4, 22.8]; p > 0.5; ES = - 0.17 and 1.7 [- 133.3, 136.7]; p > 0.05; ES = 0.01, respectively). No significant increases were observed in total body weight (- 0.9 [- 2.3, 0.6]; p > 0.05; ES = [- 0.18]) and muscle mass (- 0.1 [- 1.1,1.0]; p > 0,05; ES = - 0.04) in the KD group, but the NKD group showed increases in these parameters (0.9 [0.3, 1.5] kg; p < 0.05; ES = 0.18 and (1.3[0.5, 2.2] kg; p < 0,05; ES = 0.31, respectively). There were no changes neither in total body weight nor lean body mass (0.3 [- 1.2, 1.9]; p > 0.05; ES = 0.05 and 0.8 [- 0.4, 2.1]; p > 0.05; ES = 0.26, respectively) in the CG. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that a KD might be an alternative dietary approach to decrease fat mass and visceral adipose tissue without decreasing lean body mass; however, it might not be useful to increase muscle mass during positive energy balance in men undergoing RT for 8 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Vargas
- EADE-University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Málaga, Spain. .,Human Kinetics and Body Composition Laboratory, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain.
| | - Ramón Romance
- Human Kinetics and Body Composition Laboratory, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - Jorge L Petro
- Research Group in Physical Activity, Sports and Health Sciences, Universidad de Córdoba, Montería, Colombia
| | - Diego A Bonilla
- Research Group in Physical Activity, Sports and Health Sciences, Universidad de Córdoba, Montería, Colombia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | | | - Richard B Kreider
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Javier Benítez-Porres
- Human Kinetics and Body Composition Laboratory, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain
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