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Arms LM, Duchatel RJ, Jackson ER, Sobrinho PG, Dun MD, Hua S. Current status and advances to improving drug delivery in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. J Control Release 2024; 370:835-865. [PMID: 38744345 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Diffuse midline glioma (DMG), including tumors diagnosed in the brainstem (diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma - DIPG), is the primary cause of brain tumor-related death in pediatric patients. DIPG is characterized by a median survival of <12 months from diagnosis, harboring the worst 5-year survival rate of any cancer. Corticosteroids and radiation are the mainstay of therapy; however, they only provide transient relief from the devastating neurological symptoms. Numerous therapies have been investigated for DIPG, but the majority have been unsuccessful in demonstrating a survival benefit beyond radiation alone. Although many barriers hinder brain drug delivery in DIPG, one of the most significant challenges is the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therapeutic compounds must possess specific properties to enable efficient passage across the BBB. In brain cancer, the BBB is referred to as the blood-brain tumor barrier (BBTB), where tumors disrupt the structure and function of the BBB, which may provide opportunities for drug delivery. However, the biological characteristics of the brainstem's BBB/BBTB, both under normal physiological conditions and in response to DIPG, are poorly understood, which further complicates treatment. Better characterization of the changes that occur in the BBB/BBTB of DIPG patients is essential, as this informs future treatment strategies. Many novel drug delivery technologies have been investigated to bypass or disrupt the BBB/BBTB, including convection enhanced delivery, focused ultrasound, nanoparticle-mediated delivery, and intranasal delivery, all of which are yet to be clinically established for the treatment of DIPG. Herein, we review what is known about the BBB/BBTB and discuss the current status, limitations, and advances of conventional and novel treatments to improving brain drug delivery in DIPG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Arms
- Therapeutic Targeting Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; Precision Medicine Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia; Paediatric Program, Mark Hughes Foundation Centre for Brain Cancer Research, College of Health, Medicine & Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Ryan J Duchatel
- Precision Medicine Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia; Cancer Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; Paediatric Program, Mark Hughes Foundation Centre for Brain Cancer Research, College of Health, Medicine & Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Evangeline R Jackson
- Precision Medicine Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia; Cancer Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; Paediatric Program, Mark Hughes Foundation Centre for Brain Cancer Research, College of Health, Medicine & Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Pedro Garcia Sobrinho
- Therapeutic Targeting Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; Precision Medicine Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia
| | - Matthew D Dun
- Precision Medicine Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia; Cancer Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; Paediatric Program, Mark Hughes Foundation Centre for Brain Cancer Research, College of Health, Medicine & Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Susan Hua
- Therapeutic Targeting Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; Precision Medicine Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia; Paediatric Program, Mark Hughes Foundation Centre for Brain Cancer Research, College of Health, Medicine & Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia.
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Bahrami K, Järvinen J, Laitinen T, Reinisalo M, Honkakoski P, Poso A, Huttunen KM, Rautio J. Structural Features Affecting the Interactions and Transportability of LAT1-Targeted Phenylalanine Drug Conjugates. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:206-218. [PMID: 36394563 PMCID: PMC9811466 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
L-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1) transfers essential amino acids across cell membranes. Owing to its predominant expression in the blood-brain barrier and tumor cells, LAT1 has been exploited for drug delivery and targeting to the central nervous system (CNS) and various cancers. Although the interactions of amino acids and their mimicking compounds with LAT1 have been extensively investigated, the specific structural features for an optimal drug scaffold have not yet been determined. Here, we evaluated a series of LAT1-targeted drug-phenylalanine conjugates (ligands) by determining their uptake rates by in vitro studies and investigating their interaction with LAT1 via induced-fit docking. Combining the experimental and computational data, we concluded that although LAT1 can accommodate various types of structures, smaller compounds are preferred. As the ligand size increased, its flexibility became more crucial in determining the compound's transportability and interactions. Compounds with linear or planar structures exhibited reduced uptake; those with rigid lipophilic structures lacked interactions and likely utilized other transport mechanisms for cellular entry. Introducing polar groups between aromatic structures enhanced interactions. Interestingly, compounds with a carbamate bond in the aromatic ring's para-position displayed very good transport efficiencies for the larger compounds. Compared to the ester bond, the corresponding amide bond had superior hydrogen bond acceptor properties and increased interactions. A reverse amide bond was less favorable than a direct amide bond for interactions with LAT1. The present information can be applied broadly to design appropriate CNS or antineoplastic drug candidates with a prodrug strategy and to discover novel LAT1 inhibitors used either as direct or adjuvant cancer therapy.
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Targeting Transporters for Drug Delivery to the Brain: Can We Do Better? Pharm Res 2022; 39:1415-1455. [PMID: 35359241 PMCID: PMC9246765 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-022-03241-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Limited drug delivery to the brain is one of the major reasons for high failure rates of central nervous system (CNS) drug candidates. The blood–brain barrier (BBB) with its tight junctions, membrane transporters, receptors and metabolizing enzymes is a main player in drug delivery to the brain, restricting the entrance of the drugs and other xenobiotics. Current knowledge about the uptake transporters expressed at the BBB and brain parenchymal cells has been used for delivery of CNS drugs to the brain via targeting transporters. Although many transporter-utilizing (pro)drugs and nanocarriers have been developed to improve the uptake of drugs to the brain, their success rate of translation from preclinical development to humans is negligible. In the present review, we provide a systematic summary of the current progress in development of transporter-utilizing (pro)drugs and nanocarriers for delivery of drugs to the brain. In addition, we applied CNS pharmacokinetic concepts for evaluation of the limitations and gaps in investigation of the developed transporter-utilizing (pro)drugs and nanocarriers. Finally, we give recommendations for a rational development of transporter-utilizing drug delivery systems targeting the brain based on CNS pharmacokinetic principles.
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Huttunen KM, Terasaki T, Urtti A, Montaser AB, Uchida Y. Pharmacoproteomics of Brain Barrier Transporters and Substrate Design for the Brain Targeted Drug Delivery. Pharm Res 2022; 39:1363-1392. [PMID: 35257288 PMCID: PMC9246989 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-022-03193-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
One of the major reasons why central nervous system (CNS)-drug development has been challenging in the past, is the barriers that prevent substances entering from the blood circulation into the brain. These barriers include the blood-brain barrier (BBB), blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB), blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB), and blood-arachnoid barrier (BAB), and they differ from each other in their transporter protein expression and function as well as among the species. The quantitative expression profiles of the transporters in the CNS-barriers have been recently revealed, and in this review, it is described how they affect the pharmacokinetics of compounds and how these expression differences can be taken into account in the prediction of brain drug disposition in humans, an approach called pharmacoproteomics. In recent years, also structural biology and computational resources have progressed remarkably, enabling a detailed understanding of the dynamic processes of transporters. Molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) are currently used commonly to reveal the conformational changes of the transporters and to find the interactions between the substrates and the protein during the binding, translocation in the transporter cavity, and release of the substrate on the other side of the membrane. The computational advancements have also aided in the rational design of transporter-utilizing compounds, including prodrugs that can be actively transported without losing potency towards the pharmacological target. In this review, the state-of-art of these approaches will be also discussed to give insights into the transporter-mediated drug delivery to the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristiina M Huttunen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Tetsuya Terasaki
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Arto Urtti
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Ahmed B Montaser
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Yasuo Uchida
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
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Kell DB. The Transporter-Mediated Cellular Uptake and Efflux of Pharmaceutical Drugs and Biotechnology Products: How and Why Phospholipid Bilayer Transport Is Negligible in Real Biomembranes. Molecules 2021; 26:5629. [PMID: 34577099 PMCID: PMC8470029 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26185629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the years, my colleagues and I have come to realise that the likelihood of pharmaceutical drugs being able to diffuse through whatever unhindered phospholipid bilayer may exist in intact biological membranes in vivo is vanishingly low. This is because (i) most real biomembranes are mostly protein, not lipid, (ii) unlike purely lipid bilayers that can form transient aqueous channels, the high concentrations of proteins serve to stop such activity, (iii) natural evolution long ago selected against transport methods that just let any undesirable products enter a cell, (iv) transporters have now been identified for all kinds of molecules (even water) that were once thought not to require them, (v) many experiments show a massive variation in the uptake of drugs between different cells, tissues, and organisms, that cannot be explained if lipid bilayer transport is significant or if efflux were the only differentiator, and (vi) many experiments that manipulate the expression level of individual transporters as an independent variable demonstrate their role in drug and nutrient uptake (including in cytotoxicity or adverse drug reactions). This makes such transporters valuable both as a means of targeting drugs (not least anti-infectives) to selected cells or tissues and also as drug targets. The same considerations apply to the exploitation of substrate uptake and product efflux transporters in biotechnology. We are also beginning to recognise that transporters are more promiscuous, and antiporter activity is much more widespread, than had been realised, and that such processes are adaptive (i.e., were selected by natural evolution). The purpose of the present review is to summarise the above, and to rehearse and update readers on recent developments. These developments lead us to retain and indeed to strengthen our contention that for transmembrane pharmaceutical drug transport "phospholipid bilayer transport is negligible".
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas B. Kell
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Crown St, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK;
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark
- Mellizyme Biotechnology Ltd., IC1, Liverpool Science Park, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool L3 5TF, UK
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Tampio J, Löffler S, Guillon M, Hugele A, Huttunen J, Huttunen KM. Improved l-Type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1)-mediated delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs into astrocytes and microglia with reduced prostaglandin production. Int J Pharm 2021; 601:120565. [PMID: 33812973 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can have protective effects in the brain by inhibition of cyclooxygenases (COX). However, the delivery into the brain across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and particularly into the brain parenchymal cells is hindered. Therefore, in the present study, we developed four l-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1)-utilizing prodrugs of flurbiprofen, ibuprofen, naproxen, and ketoprofen, since LAT1 is expressed on both, the BBB endothelial cells as well as parenchymal cells. The cellular uptake and utilization of LAT1 by novel prodrugs were studied in mouse cortical primary astrocytes and immortalized microglia (BV2), and the release of the parent NSAID in several tissue and cell homogenates. Finally, the effects of the studied prodrugs on prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production and cell viability were explored. The gained results showed that all four prodrugs were carried into their target cells via LAT1. They also released their parent NSAIDs via carboxylesterases (CES) and most likely also other un-identified enzymes, which need to be carefully considered when administrating these compounds orally or intravenously. Most importantly, all the studied prodrugs reduced the PGE2 production in astrocytes and microglia after lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation by 29-94% and without affecting the cell viability with the studied concentration (20 µM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Janne Tampio
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Susanne Löffler
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Melina Guillon
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Agathe Hugele
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Johanna Huttunen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Kristiina M Huttunen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
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Jalkanen AJ, Ihalainen J, Lehtonen M, Forsberg MM, Rautio J, Huttunen KM, Gynther M. Species differences in the intra-brain distribution of an L-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1) -utilizing compound between mice and rats. Int J Pharm 2021; 596:120300. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Venteicher B, Merklin K, Ngo HX, Chien HC, Hutchinson K, Campbell J, Way H, Griffith J, Alvarado C, Chandra S, Hill E, Schlessinger A, Thomas AA. The Effects of Prodrug Size and a Carbonyl Linker on l-Type Amino Acid Transporter 1-Targeted Cellular and Brain Uptake. ChemMedChem 2020; 16:869-880. [PMID: 33230949 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202000824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The l-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1, SLC7A5) imports dietary amino acids and amino acid drugs (e. g., l-DOPA) into the brain, and plays a role in cancer metabolism. Though there have been numerous reports of LAT1-targeted amino acid-drug conjugates (prodrugs), identifying the structural determinants to enhance substrate activity has been challenging. In this work, we investigated the position and orientation of a carbonyl group in linking hydrophobic moieties including the anti-inflammatory drug ketoprofen to l-tyrosine and l-phenylalanine. We found that esters of meta-carboxyl l-phenylalanine had better LAT1 transport rates than the corresponding acylated l-tyrosine analogues. However, as the size of the hydrophobic moiety increased, we observed a decrease in LAT1 transport rate with a concomitant increase in potency of inhibition. Our results have important implications for designing amino acid prodrugs that target LAT1 at the blood-brain barrier or on cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooklynn Venteicher
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 2401 11th Ave, Bruner Hall of Science, Kearney, NE 68849, USA
| | - Kasey Merklin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 2401 11th Ave, Bruner Hall of Science, Kearney, NE 68849, USA
| | - Huy X Ngo
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 1550 4th St, Rm RH581, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Huan-Chieh Chien
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 1550 4th St, Rm RH581, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Keino Hutchinson
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, 1468 Madison Ave, Annenberg Building Floor 19, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Jerome Campbell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 2401 11th Ave, Bruner Hall of Science, Kearney, NE 68849, USA
| | - Hannah Way
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 2401 11th Ave, Bruner Hall of Science, Kearney, NE 68849, USA
| | - Joseph Griffith
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 2401 11th Ave, Bruner Hall of Science, Kearney, NE 68849, USA
| | - Cesar Alvarado
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 2401 11th Ave, Bruner Hall of Science, Kearney, NE 68849, USA
| | - Surabhi Chandra
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 2401 11th Ave, Bruner Hall of Science, Kearney, NE 68849, USA
| | - Evan Hill
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska, at Kearney 2507 11th Ave, Copeland Hall, Kearney, NE, 68849, (USA)
| | - Avner Schlessinger
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, 1468 Madison Ave, Annenberg Building Floor 19, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Allen A Thomas
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska at Kearney, 2401 11th Ave, Bruner Hall of Science, Kearney, NE 68849, USA
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