Are Nanobiosensors an Improved Solution for Diagnosis of Leishmania?

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies in Parasitic Disease Management: From Prevention to Diagnosis and Treatment

Parasitic infections are a major global health issue causing significant mortality and morbidity. Despite substantial advances in the diagnostics and treatment of these diseases, the currently available options fall far short of expectations. From diagnosis and treatment to prevention and control, nanotechnology-based techniques show promise as an alternative approach. Nanoparticles can be designed with specific properties to target parasites and deliver antiparasitic medications and vaccines. Nanoparticles such as liposomes, nanosuspensions, polymer-based nanoparticles, and solid lipid nanoparticles have been shown to overcome limitations such as limited bioavailability, poor cellular permeability, nonspecific distribution, and rapid drug elimination from the body. These nanoparticles also serve as nanobiosensors for the early detection and treatment of these diseases. This review aims to summarize the potential applications of nanoparticles in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of parasitic diseases such as leishmaniasis, malaria, and trypanosomiasis. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of these applications and their market values and highlights the need for further research in this field.

Challenges and Prospective of Enhancing Hydatid Cyst Chemotherapy by Nanotechnology and the Future of Nanobiosensors for Diagnosis

Hydatid cysts have been widely recognized for decades as a common medical problem that affects millions of people. A revolution in medical treatment may be on the prospect of nanotechnology enhancing chemotherapy against hydatid cysts. An overview of nanotechnology's impact on chemotherapeutics is presented in the current review. It discusses some of the challenges as well as some of the opportunities. The application of nanotechnology to enhance chemotherapy against hydatid cysts is what this review will explore. Nanotechnology is a critical component of delivering therapeutic agents with greater precision and efficiency and targeting hydatid cysts with better efficacy, and minimizing interference with surrounding tissue. However, there are biodistribution challenges, toxicity, and resistance problems associated with nanotherapeutics. Additionally, nanobiosensors are being investigated to enable the early diagnosis of hydatid cysts. A nanobiosensor can detect hydatid cysts by catching them early, non-invasively, rapidly, and accurately. The sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic tests can be enhanced with nanobiosensors because they take advantage of the unique properties of nanomaterials. By providing more precise and customized treatment options for hydatid cysts, nanotechnology may improve therapeutic options and strategies for diagnosing the disease. In conclusion, treatment with nanotechnology to treat hydatid cysts is potentially effective but presents many obstacles. Furthermore, nanobiosensors are being integrated into diagnostic techniques, as well as helping to diagnose patients earlier and more accurately.

Inclusion complex of ketoconazole and p-sulfonic acid calix[6]arene improves antileishmanial activity and selectivity against Leishmania amazonensis and Leishmania infantum

Many previous studies presented the effectiveness of ketoconazole (KTZ) against leishmaniasis. However, the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of free KTZ are limited due to its low aqueous solubility. In this study, an inclusion complex (IC6HKTZ) was prepared with p-sulfonic acid calix[6]arene (CX6SO₃H) to improve the solubility and efficacy of KTZ against Leishmania amazonensis and Leishmania infantum promastigotes. A linear increase in KTZ solubility as a function of CX6SO₃H concentration was verified using the phase-solubility diagram. The resulting diagram was classified as A_L-type and a 1:1 host-guest stoichiometry was assumed to prepare IC6HKTZ by freeze-drying. FTIR, TG/DSC, XRD, and solid-state ¹³C NMR spectroscopy analyses were performed to confirm the formation of IC6HKTZ. The solubility enhancement of KTZ by 120.00 μM CX6SO₃H was about 95 times. The IC₅₀ values of IC6HKTZ and free KTZ were 3.95 and 14.35 μM for Leishmania amazonensis and 6.74 and 17.47 μM for Leishmania infantum, respectively. The viability of DH82 macrophages was not affected by CX6SO₃H. These results show that CX6SO₃H is a new supramolecular carrier system that improves antileishmanial activities to KTZ for the treatment of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis.

The efficacy of AuNP-probe conjugate nanobiosensor in non-amplification and amplification forms for the diagnosis of leishmaniasis

Nanobiosensor platforms have emerged as convenient and promising approaches with remarkable efficacy for the diagnosis of infectious diseases. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been widely used due to numerous advantageous properties such as optical, electrical, physicochemical and great biomolecules binding capabilities. This study aimed to apply AuNP-Probe Conjugate for the detection of Leishmania spp., using colorimetric and amplification methods targeting parasitic ITS2 fragment. The first method was carried out by hybridization of 10µL of DNA with 4 µL of probe and addition of 5 µL of 0.2 N HCl (non-amplification method). Second method was followed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification using thiolated primer, 5 µL of AuNP and 5 µL of 0.2 N HCl. The appearance of red and purple colors indicated positive and negative results, respectively. The minimum of detection for non-amplification and amplification methods for three strains of Leishmania namely L. major, L. tropica and L. infantum were determined to be 32 fg/µL and 16 fg/µL, respectively. Sensitivity for detection of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) for non-amplification and amplification methods included 96% and 100%, respectively and for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) included 98% and 100%, respectively. The results of this investigation revealed that sensitivity of amplification method was the same as RT-qPCR, while that of non-amplification method was lower. However, this method was promising because of no need for any equipment, high specificity, enough sensitivity, low cost and rapidity (less than 30 min) to complete after genomic DNA extraction.

Laboratory diagnostics for human Leishmania infections: a polymerase chain reaction-focussed review of detection and identification methods

Leishmania infections span a range of clinical syndromes and impact humans from many geographic foci, but primarily the world's poorest regions. Transmitted by the bite of a female sand fly, Leishmania infections are increasing with human movement (due to international travel and war) as well as with shifts in vector habitat (due to climate change). Accurate diagnosis of the 20 or so species of Leishmania that infect humans can lead to the successful treatment of infections and, importantly, their prevention through modelling and intervention programs. A multitude of laboratory techniques for the detection of Leishmania have been developed over the past few decades, and although many have drawbacks, several of them show promise, particularly molecular methods like polymerase chain reaction. This review provides an overview of the methods available to diagnostic laboratories, from traditional techniques to the now-preferred molecular techniques, with an emphasis on polymerase chain reaction-based detection and typing methods.

Biosensor-Integrated Drug Delivery Systems as New Materials for Biomedical Applications

Biosensor-integrated drug delivery systems are innovative devices in the health area, enabling continuous monitoring and drug administration. The use of smart polymer, bioMEMS, and electrochemical sensors have been extensively studied for these systems, especially for chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, cancer and cardiovascular diseases as well as advances in regenerative medicine. Basically, the technology involves sensors designed for the continuous analysis of biological molecules followed by drug release in response to specific signals. The advantages include high sensitivity and fast drug release. In this work, the main advances of biosensor-integrated drug delivery systems as new biomedical materials to improve the patients’ quality of life with chronic diseases are discussed.

Sequence-Specific Electrochemical Genosensor for Rapid Detection of blaOXA-51-like Gene in Acinetobacter baumannii

Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) are phenotypically indistinguishable from the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus−A. baumannii (ACB) complex members using routine laboratory methods. Early diagnosis plays an important role in controlling A. baumannii infections and this could be assisted by the development of a rapid, yet sensitive diagnostic test. In this study, we developed an enzyme-based electrochemical genosensor for asymmetric PCR (aPCR) amplicon detection of the blaOXA-51-like gene in A. baumannii. A. baumanniiblaOXA-51-like gene PCR primers were designed, having the reverse primer modified at the 5′ end with FAM. A blaOXA-51-like gene sequence-specific biotin labelled capture probe was designed and immobilized using a synthetic oligomer (FAM-labelled) deposited on the working electrode of a streptavidin-modified, screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE). The zot gene was used as an internal control with biotin and FAM labelled as forward and reverse primers, respectively. The blaOXA-51-like gene was amplified using asymmetric PCR (aPCR) to generate single-stranded amplicons that were detected using the designed SPCE. The amperometric current response was detected with a peroxidase-conjugated, anti-fluorescein antibody. The assay was tested using reference and clinical A. baumannii strains and other nosocomial bacteria. The analytical sensitivity of the assay at the genomic level and bacterial cell level was 0.5 pg/mL (1.443 µA) and 103 CFU/mL, respectively. The assay was 100% specific and sensitive for A. baumannii. Based on accelerated stability performance, the developed genosensor was stable for 1.6 years when stored at 4 °C and up to 28 days at >25 °C. The developed electrochemical genosensor is specific and sensitive and could be useful for rapid, accurate diagnosis of A. baumannii infections even in temperate regions.

Leishmania 360°: Guidelines for Exosomal Research

Leishmania parasites are a group of kinetoplastid pathogens that cause a variety of clinical disorders while maintaining cell communication by secreting extracellular vesicles. Emerging technologies have been adapted for the study of Leishmania-host cell interactions, to enable the broad-scale analysis of the extracellular vesicles of this parasite. Leishmania extracellular vesicles (LEVs) are spheroidal nanoparticles of polydispersed suspensions surrounded by a layer of lipid membrane. Although LEVs have attracted increasing attention from researchers, many aspects of their biology remain unclear, including their bioavailability and function in the complex molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis. Given the importance of LEVs in the parasite-host interaction, and in the parasite-parasite relationships that have emerged during the evolutionary history of these organisms, the present review provides an overview of the available data on Leishmania, and formulates guidelines for LEV research. We conclude by reporting direct methods for the isolation of specific LEVs from the culture supernatant of the promastigotes and amastigotes that are suitable for a range of different downstream applications, which increases the compatibility and reproducibility of the approach for the establishment of optimal and comparable isolation conditions and the complete characterization of the LEV, as well as the critical immunomodulatory events triggered by this important group of parasites.

Exploring Innovative Leishmaniasis Treatment: Drug Targets from Pre-Clinical to Clinical Findings

Leishmaniasis is a group of tropical diseases caused by parasitic protozoa belonging to the genus Leishmania. The disease is categorized in cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL), and visceral leishmaniasis (VL). The conventional treatment is complex and can present high toxicity and therapeutic failures. Thus, there is a continuing need to develop new treatments. In this review, we focus on the novel molecules described in the literature with potential leishmanicidal activity, categorizing them in pre-clinical (in vitro, in vivo), drug repurposing and clinical research.

Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Mediated by Entomopathogenic Fungi: Antimicrobial Resistance, Nanopesticides, and Toxicity

Silver nanoparticles are widely used in the biomedical and agri-food fields due to their versatility. The use of biological methods for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles has increased considerably due to their feasibility and high biocompatibility. In general, microorganisms have been widely explored for the production of silver nanoparticles for several applications. The objective of this work was to evaluate the use of entomopathogenic fungi for the biological synthesis of silver nanoparticles, in comparison to the use of other filamentous fungi, and the possibility of using these nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents and for the control of insect pests. In addition, the in vitro methods commonly used to assess the toxicity of these materials are discussed. Several species of filamentous fungi are known to have the ability to form silver nanoparticles, but few studies have been conducted on the potential of entomopathogenic fungi to produce these materials. The investigation of the toxicity of silver nanoparticles is usually carried out in vitro through cytotoxicity/genotoxicity analyses, using well-established methodologies, such as MTT and comet assays, respectively. The use of silver nanoparticles obtained through entomopathogenic fungi against insects is mainly focused on mosquitoes that transmit diseases to humans, with satisfactory results regarding mortality estimates. Entomopathogenic fungi can be employed in the synthesis of silver nanoparticles for potential use in insect control, but there is a need to expand studies on toxicity so to enable their use also in insect control in agriculture.

Strike a Balance: Between Metals and Non-Metals, Metalloids as a Source of Anti-Infective Agents

Most of the commercially available anti-infective agents are organic molecules. In fact, though, during the pioneering times of modern medicine, at the beginning of the 20th century, several inorganic compounds of transition metals were used for medicinal application, to date, only a small number of inorganic drugs are used in clinical practice. Beyond the transition metals, metalloids—or semimetals—offer a rich chemistry in between that of metallic and non-metallic elements, and accordingly, peculiar features for their exploitation in medicinal chemistry. A few important examples of metalloid-based drugs currently used for the treatment of various diseases do exist. However, the use of this group of elements could be further expanded on the basis of their current applications and the clinical trials they entered. Considering that metalloids offer the opportunity to expand the “chemical-space” for developing novel anti-infective drugs and protocols, in this paper, we briefly recapitulate and discuss the current applications of B-, Si-, As-, Sb- and Te-based anti-infective drugs.