Physicochemical Characterizations and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation of Pentazocine Solid Lipid Nanoparticles against Inflammatory Pain Model

Nanomedicine in glaucoma treatment; Current challenges and future perspectives

Glaucoma presents a significant global health concern and affects millions of individuals worldwide and predicted a high increase in prevalence of about 111 million by 2040. The current standard treatment involves hypotensive eye drops; however, challenges such as patient adherence and limited drug bioavailability hinder the treatment effectiveness. Nanopharmaceuticals or nanomedicines offer promising solutions to overcome these obstacles. In this manuscript, we summarized the current limitations of conventional antiglaucoma treatment, role of nanomedicine in glaucoma treatment, rational design, factors effecting the performance of nanomedicine and different types of nanocarriers in designing of nanomedicine along with their applications in glaucoma treatment from recent literature. Current clinical challenges that hinder real-time application of antiglaucoma nanomedicine are highlighted. Lastly, future directions are identified for improving the therapeutic potential and translation of antiglaucoma nanomedicine into clinic.

Obstructed vein delivery of ceftriaxone via poly(vinyl-pyrrolidone)-iodine-chitosan nanofibers for the management of diabetic foot infections and burn wounds

Superficial skin injuries especially burn injuries and unhealed diabetic foot open wounds remain troubling for public health. The healing process is often interrupted by the invasion of resistant pathogens that results in the failure of conventional procedures outside the clinical settings. Herein, we designed nanofibers dressing with intrinsic antibacterial potential of poly(vinyl-pyrrolidone)-iodine/ poly (vinyl)-alcohol by electrospinning with chitosan encapsulating ceftriaxone (CPC/NFs). The optimized electrospun CPC/NFs exhibited smooth surface morphology with average diameter of 165 ± 7.1 nm, drug entrapment and loading efficiencies of 76.97 ± 4.7 % and 8.32 ± 1.73 %, respectively. The results displayed smooth and uniformed fibers with adequate thermal stability and ensured chemical doping. The enhanced in vitro antibacterial efficacy of CPC/NFs against resistant E. coli isolates and biosafety studies encourage the use of designed nanofibers dressing for burn injuries and diabetic foot injuries. In vivo studies proved the healing power of dressing for burn wounds model and diabetic infected wounds model. Immunofluorescence investigation of the wound tissue also suggested promising healing ability of CPC/NFs. The designed approach would be helpful to treat these infected skin open wounds in the hospitals and outside the clinical settings.

α-Lactalbumin based scaffolds for infected wound healing and tissue regeneration

Interruption of wound healing by multi-drug resistant-bacterial infection is a harmful issue for the worldwide health care system, and conventional treatment approaches may not resolve this issue due to antimicrobial resistance. So, there is an unmet need to develop scaffolds with intrinsic wound healing properties to combat bacterial-infected wounds. Inspired by the α-lactalbumin's (Lalb's) ability to promote collagen synthesis, we herein electrospun Lalb with cephalexin (CPL) and epigallocatechin (EP) to produce nanofibers (CE-Lalb NFs) to solve this issue. The CE-Lalb NFs were prepared using the electrospinning technique and subjected to physicochemical characterizations, in vitro, and in vivo assessments. The CE-Lalb NFs promoted fibroblast migration, proliferation, and collagen synthesis, while CPL/EP annihilated MRSA and E. coli infections. Physicochemical characterizations proved the successful fabrication and doping of CE-Lalb NFs. Antimicrobial assays and fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) declared synergistic antibacterial activity of CE-Lalb NFs against MRSA and E. coli. The in vivo and immunohistochemical data evidenced its exceptional potential for wound healing, promoting growth factor, collagen synthesis, and reduced scar formation. The presence of mature collagen, fewer inflammatory cytokines, increased expression of blood vessels, and low expression of IL-6 at the wound site support in vitro and in vivo results. In our view, the tailored scaffold is the next step for personalized wound dressings that could meet patients with infected wounds' unmet needs by the subscription of noninvasive and easily navigable therapeutic options.

Bio-evaluations of sericin coated hesperidin nanoparticles for gastric ulcer management

Gastric ulcers are worrying, and their worsening conditions may result in bleeding in the internal lining of the stomach. The problem is annoying, and both patients and professionals are still not satisfied with the available treatment options. Hesperidin, a flavonoid molecule with potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, can work like witchcraft to repair gastric ulcers and preserve the stomach lining. Here, we employed a strategy that involved covering the surface of the nano-lipid carriers (NLCs) with sericin before encasing the hesperidin within (Se-He-NLC). Sericin, a biodegradable polymer increases the muco-adhesion with stomach lining and deployment of hesperidin in controlled manner. Se-He-NLCs were physico-chemically characterized for drug loading, encapsulation, particle size, morphology, drug release, chemical stability, and chemical bonding. The nanocarriers showed first order drug release in a controlled manner. Se-He-NLCs showed better in vitro permeation and ex vivo mucoadhesion, thereby by promoting the in vivo bioavailability. Se-He-NLCs also promoted the reduced glutathione (GSH) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) levels by 2.24- and 1.61-folds, respectively in the stomach lining, and also the regulation of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities parallel to the control group. In addition, tissues lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity were reduced significantly with Se-He-NLCs administration. Se-He-NLC therapy of stomach ulcers in vivo demonstrated better binding ratio and ulcer healing potential. This approach reveals huge capacity for delivering therapies to treat gastric ulcers based on the clinical significance of sericin coated hesperidin nanocarriers in gastric ulcer treatment.

Self-emulsifying micelles as a drug nanocarrier system for itraconazole oral bioavailability enhancement; in vitro and in vivo assessment

Itraconazole (ITZ) is a renowned antifungal medication, however its therapeutic efficacy is limited by low solubility and oral bioavailability. The current research work attempted to augment the oral bioavailability of ITZ by incorporating into self-emulsifying micelles (SEMCs). To fabricate the SEMCs, various preparation techniques including physical mixture, melt-emulsification, solvent evaporation and kneading, were opted by using different weight ratio of drug and solubilizers i.e. Gelucire-50/13 or Gelucire-44/14 and characterized both in vitro and in vivo. The prepared SEMCs were found to be in the size range from 63.4 ± 5.2 to 284.2 ± 19.5 nm with surface charges ranging from -16 ± 1.2 to -27 ± 2.0 mV. The drug solubility was improved to a reasonable extent with all investigated formulations, however, SEMCs in group 6 prepared by kneading method (KMG6) using Gelucire-44/14: drug (10:1 presented 87.6 folds' increase (964.93 ± 2 μg/mL) compared to solubility of crystalline ITZ (11 ± 2 μg/mL) through kneading method. In addition, KMG6 SEMCs shows the fast drug release compared to other SEMCs. Further, KMG6 SEMCs also exhibited 5.12-fold higher relative intestinal serosal fluid absorption compared to crystalline ITZ. The pharmacokinetic parameters such Cmax, AUC and Tmax of KMG6 SEMCs significantly improved compared to crystalline ITZ. In conclusion, the manipulation of ITZ solubility, dissolution rate and absorption using SEMCs is a promising strategy for bioavailability enhancement.

Development of Gefitinib-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Breast Cancer: Physicochemical Evaluation, Stability, and Anticancer Activity in Breast Cancer (MCF-7) Cells

In the current study, the toxic effects of gefitinib-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (GFT-loaded SLNs) upon human breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7) were investigated. GFT-loaded SLNs were prepared through a single emulsification-evaporation technique using glyceryl tristearate (Dynasan™ 114) along with lipoid® 90H (lipid surfactant) and Kolliphore® 188 (water-soluble surfactant). Four formulae were developed by varying the weight of the lipoid™ 90H (100-250 mg), and the GFT-loaded SLN (F4) formulation was optimized in terms of particle size (472 ± 7.5 nm), PDI (0.249), ZP (-15.2 ± 2.3), and EE (83.18 ± 4.7%). The optimized formulation was further subjected for in vitro release, stability studies, and MTT assay against MCF-7 cell lines. GFT from SLNs exhibited sustained release of the drug for 48 h, and release kinetics followed the Korsmeyer-Peppas model, which indicates the mechanism of drug release by swelling and/or erosion from a lipid matrix. When pure GFT and GFT-SLNs were exposed to MCF-7 cells, the activities of p53 (3.4 and 3.7 times), caspase-3 (5.61 and 7.7 times), and caspase-9 (1.48 and 1.69 times) were enhanced, respectively, over those in control cells. The results suggest that GFT-loaded SLNs (F4) may represent a promising therapeutic alternative for breast cancer.

Utility of Minimal Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models for Assessing Fractional Distribution, Oral Absorption, and Series-Compartment Models of Hepatic Clearance

Minimal physiologically based pharmacokinetic (mPBPK) models are physiologically relevant, require less information than full PBPK models, and offer flexibility in pharmacokinetics (PK). The well-stirred hepatic model (WSM) is commonly used in PBPK, whereas the more plausible dispersion model (DM) poses computational complexities. The series-compartment model (SCM) mimics the DM but is easier to operate. This work implements the SCM and mPBPK models for assessing fractional tissue distribution, oral absorption, and hepatic clearance using literature-reported blood and liver concentration-time data in rats for compounds mainly cleared by the liver. Further handled were various complexities, including nonlinear hepatic binding and metabolism, differing absorption kinetics, and sites of administration. The SCM containing one to five (n) liver subcompartments yields similar fittings and provides comparable estimates for hepatic extraction ratio (ER), prehepatic availability (Fg ), and first-order absorption rate constants (ka ). However, they produce decreased intrinsic clearances (CLint ) and liver-to-plasma partition coefficients (Kph ) with increasing n as expected. Model simulations demonstrated changes in intravenous and oral PK profiles with alterations in Kph and ka and with hepatic metabolic zonation. The permeability (PAMPA P) of the various compounds well explained the fitted fractional distribution (fd ) parameters. The SCM and mPBPK models offer advantages in distinguishing systemic, extrahepatic, and hepatic clearances. The SCM allows for incorporation of liver zonation and is useful in assessing changes in internal concentration gradients potentially masked by similar blood PK profiles. Improved assessment of intraorgan drug concentrations may offer insights into active moieties driving metabolism, biliary excretion, pharmacodynamics, and hepatic toxicity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The minimal physiologically based pharmacokinetic model and the series-compartment model are useful in assessing oral absorption and hepatic clearance. They add flexibility in accounting for various drug- or system-specific complexities, including fractional distribution, nonlinear binding and saturable hepatic metabolism, and hepatic zonation. These models can offer improved insights into the intraorgan concentrations that reflect physiologically active moieties often driving disposition, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity.

Recent advances and prospects for lipid-based nanoparticles as drug carriers in the treatment of human retinal diseases

The delivery of cures for retinal diseases remains problematic. There are four main challenges: passing through multiple barriers of the eye, the delivery to particular retinal cell types, the capability to carry different forms of therapeutic cargo and long-term therapeutic efficacy. Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are potent to overcome these challenges due to their unique merits: amphiphilic nanoarchitectures to pass biological barriers, vary modifications with specific affinity to target cell types, flexible capacity for large and mixed types of cargos and slow-release formulations for long-term treatment. We have reviewed the latest research on the applications of LBNPs for treating retinal diseases and categorized them by different payloads. Furthermore, we identified technical barriers and discussed possible future development for LBNPs to expand the therapeutic potential in treating retinal diseases.

Eco-Friendly Sustainable Nanocarriers to Treat Oxidative Stresses and Skin Aging-Related Ailments, Valorization of a By-Product

The peel from Citrus-sinensis L. is a medicinally significant food waste, and its extract (O-Ext) could be significant against oxidative stresses and skin aging, However, the penetration barriers, instability in formulation, undefined toxicities, and enzymatic activities make the O-Ext difficult to formulate and commercialize. The goal of this study was to evaluate O-Ext against oxidative stress, prepare O-Ext-loaded nano-lipid carriers (O-NLCs), and load them into topical O/W-emulsion (O-NLC-E) to improve O-Ext permeation and its in vivo antiaging effects. TPC, TFC, DPPH activity, and mineral/metal contents of O-Ext were determined via atomic-absorption spectroscopy. For bioactive compounds profiling, GC-MS analysis was carried out. O-NLCs were prepared and tested for physicochemical attributes, while HaCaT and fibroblast cells were used to study permeation and cytotoxicity. The kinetic characteristics of ex vivo permeation through rat skin were established, following the Higuchi model. Following written consent, safety investigations were conducted on human volunteers for three months, where optimized O-NLC-E and B-NLC-E were regularly applied on cheeks. Non-invasive procedures were used to assess the volunteer's skin erythema, TEWL, sebum level, melanin, hydration, pH, elasticity, and pore sizes after specified intervals. The results demonstrated that applying O-NLC-E formulation to the skin of volunteers directed significant antiaging benefits. The study offers nanotechnology-based sustainability approach against skin ageing.

Design, Physical Characterizations, and Biocompatibility of Cationic Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in HCT-116 and 16-HBE Cells: A Preliminary Study

In this study, pEGFP-LUC was used as a model plasmid and three distinct cationic lipids (dioleyloxy-propyl-trimethylammonium chloride [DOTMA], dioleoyl trimethylammonium propane [DOTAP], and cetylpyridinium chloride [CPC]) were tested along with PEG 5000, as a nonionic surfactant, to prepare glyceryl monostearate (GMS)-based cationic solid lipid nanoparticles (cSLNs). Both the type and quantity of surfactant had an impact on the physicochemical characteristics of the cSLNs. Thermal analysis of the greater part of the endothermic peaks of the cSLNs revealed they were noticeably different from the individual pure compounds based on their zeta potential (ZP ranging from +17 to +56 mV) and particle size (PS ranging from 185 to 244 nm). The addition of cationic surfactants was required to produce nanoparticles (NPs) with a positive surface charge. This suggested that the surfactants and extensive entanglement of the lipid matrix GMS provided support for the behavioral diversity of the cSLNs and their capacity to interface with the plasmid DNA. Additionally, hemolytic assays were used to show that the cSLNs were biocompatible with the human colon cancer HCT-116 and human bronchial epithelial 16-HBE cell lines. The DOTMA 6-based cSLN was selected as the lead cSLN for further ex vivo and in vivo investigations. Taken together, these new findings might provide some guidance in selecting surfactants to prepare extremely efficient and non-toxic cSLN-based therapeutic delivery systems (e.g., gene therapy).

Ameliorative effect of two structurally divergent hydrazide derivatives against DSS-induced colitis by targeting Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling in mice

The environmental factors and genetic vulnerability trigger the inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Furthermore, the oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines have been implicated in the aggravation of the IBDs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of N-(benzylidene)-2-((2-hydroxynaphthalen-1-yl)diazenyl)benzohydrazides (NCHDH and NTHDH) compounds against the DSS-induced colitis in mice. The colitis was induced by 5% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) dissolved in normal saline for 5 days. The effect of the NCHDH and NTHDH on the behavioral, biochemical, histological, and immunohistological parameters was assessed. The NCHDH and NTHDH treatment improved the behavioral parameters such as food intake, disease activity index, and diarrhea score significantly compared to DSS control. The NCHDH and NTHDH treatments significantly increased the antioxidant enzymes, whereas oxidative stress markers were markedly reduced. Similarly, the NCHDH and NTHDH treatments significantly suppressed the activity of nitric oxide (NO), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and eosinophil peroxidase (EPO). The histological studies showed a significant reduction in inflammation, immune cell infiltration, and fibrosis in the NCHDH- and NTHDH-treated groups. The immunohistochemical results demonstrated that NCHDH and NTHDH treatments markedly increase the expression level of Nrf2, HO-1 (hemeoxygenase-1), TRX (thioredoxin reductase), and IκB compared to the DSS-induced group. In the same way, the NCHDH and NTHDH significantly reduced the NF-κB and COX-2 (cyclooxygenase-2) expression levels. The NCHDH and NTHDH treatment significantly improved the symptoms associated with colitis via inducing antioxidants and attenuating oxidative stress markers.

Formulation and Evaluation of Diclofenac Potassium Gel in Sports Injuries with and without Phonophoresis

Background: Pain remains a global public heath priority. Phonophoresis, also known as sonophoresis or ultrasonophoresis, is when an ultrasound is used to maximize the effects of a topical drug. Purpose: The objective of this study was to test, in patients injured in sports or accidents (N = 200), the efficacy of diclofenac potassium (DK) 6%, 4%, and 2% formulated gels with and without phonophoresis in comparison with market available standard diclofenac sodium (DS or DN) gel. Methods: The patients were enrolled after informed consent. By using the lottery method, 100 patients were randomly segregated into five groups without phonophoresis and repeated similarly with phonophoresis at a frequency of 0.8 MHz, an intensity of about 1.5 W/cm2, and at continuous mode (2:1). Group-1 was treated with 6% DK gel, group-2 was treated with 4% DK gel, group-3 was treated with 2% DK gel, group-4 was treated with 4% DS gel and group-5 was given control gel three to four times a week for 4 weeks. The patients were screened by using NPRS and WOMAC scales. They were assessed on the baseline, 4th session, 8th session, 12th session, and 16th session. Results: Significant dose-dependently relief was observed in NPRS (Numeric Pain Rating Scale) and the WOMAC (Western Ontario McMaster Osteo-Arthritis) index for pain in disability and stiffness for each group treated with DK gel compared to DS gel. Phonophoresis increased these benefits significantly when used after topical application of DK gel or DS gel, and the dose-dependent effects of DK gel plus phonophoresis were stronger than the dose-dependent effects of DS gel plus phonophoresis. The faster and profounder relief was due to phonophoresis, which allows more penetration of the DK gel into the skin as compared to the direct application of DK gel in acute, uncomplicated soft tissue injury, such as plantar fasciitis, bursitis stress injuries, and tendinitis. In addition, DK gel with phonophoresis was well tolerated. Thus, in this personalized clinical setting, according to the degree of inflammation or injured-induced pain, disability, and stiffness, DK gel 6% with phonophoresis appeared more effective and thus more recommendable than DS gel 6% alone or DS gel 6% combined to phonophoresis.

Fabrication and Characterizations of Pharmaceutical Emulgel Co-Loaded with Naproxen-Eugenol for Improved Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects

The aim of this study was to fabricate and characterize a pharmaceutical emulgel co-loaded with naproxen/eugenol for transdermal delivery to improve the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects and to eliminate GIT adverse reactions. Emulgel was prepared using a slow emulsification method and evaluated for physical appearance, thermodynamic stability, viscosity, pH, spreadability, extrudability, in-vitro drug release, drug content, ex-vivo permeation, drug retention studies and in-vivo studies. The emulgel exhibited good physical attributes, being thermodynamically stable with no phase separation, having excellent homogeneity, and pH 5.5 to 6.5. Slight changes in viscosity, spreadability and extrudability with respect to high temperature were observed (p > 0.05). The drug content was 96.69 ± 1.18% and 97.24 ± 1.27% for naproxen and eugenol, respectively. The maximum release of naproxen after 12 h was 85.14 ± 1.11%, whereas eugenol was 86.67 ± 1.23% from emulgel following anomalous non-Fickian mechanism. The maximum % permeation of naproxen across skin was 78.5 ± 1.30, whereas maximum % permeation of eugenol was 83.7 ± 1.33 after 12 h. The skin retention of eugenol and naproxen was 8.52 ± 0.22% and 6.98 ± 0.24%, respectively. The optimized emulgel inhibited the carrageenan induced paw edema. The pain reaction times of optimized emulgel and standard marketed product (Voltral®) were 11.16 ± 0.17 and 10.36 ± 0.47, respectively, with no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05). This study concluded that transdermal delivery of naproxen-eugenol emulgel synergized the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of naproxen and eugenol.

In Vitro and Ex Vivo Evaluation of Mangifera indica L. Extract-Loaded Green Nanoparticles in Topical Emulsion against Oxidative Stress and Aging

Although Mangifera indica L. extract (M-Ext) of the peel and kernel possesses potent antioxidant and excellent antiaging qualities, the effects are only partially seen because of the skin’s limited ability to absorb it. M-Ext was loaded into nanolipid carriers (M-NLCs) in this work to create a green topical formulation that would boost antiaging efficacy and address penetration deficit. Compound identification was done using GCMS and atomic absorption spectroscopy for heavy metals in M-Ext. M-Ext was also evaluated against oxidative stress antioxidant enzymes. The M-NLCs were fabricated and evaluated for their physicochemical characterizations. Cytotoxicity and cell permeation analysis of M-Ext and M-NLCs were carried out in fibroblasts and HaCaT cell lines. An ex vivo permeation study of M-Ext and M-NLC-loaded emulsion was performed through rat skin and the kinetic parameters were determined. Kinetic data showed that the ex vivo permeation of M-NLC-loaded emulsion through rat skin followed the Higuchi model. The safety profile was evaluated in human volunteers after written consent. Three months’ in vivo investigations were conducted using the optimized M-NLC-loaded emulsion and vehicle (B-NLC-loaded emulsion) on human cheeks for comparison. The volunteers’ skin erythema level, melanin contents, TEWL index, moisture contents, sebum level, elasticity, pH, and pore size were examined after the first, second, and third month via noninvasive techniques. There were significant findings for physicochemical characterizations and in vitro and ex vivo studies. The findings demonstrate that the green nanolipid carriers amplified the overall antioxidant effectiveness and may represent an emerging treatment strategy for oxidative stresses and aging.

Synthesis and In Vitro/Ex Vivo Characterizations of Ceftriazone-Loaded Sodium Alginate/Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) Clay Reinforced Nanocomposites: Possible Applications in Wound Healing

(1) Background: Nanocomposite films are widely applied in the pharmaceutical industry (e.g., nanodrug delivery systems—NDDS). Indeed, these nanomaterials can be produced at a large industrial scale and display valuable properties (e.g., antibacterial, renewability, biodegradability, bioavailability, safety, tissue-specific targeting, and biocompatibility), which can enhance the activity of conventional marketed drugs. (2) Aim: To fabricate and investigate the in vitro properties of the antibiotic ceftriaxone sodium (CTX) once encapsulated into sodium alginate (SA)/poly(vinyl alcohol)PVA-clay reinforced nanocomposite films. (3) Methods: Different ratios of the polymers (i.e., SA, PVA) and CTX drug were used for the synthesis of nanocomposite films by solvent casting technique. Montmorillonite (MMT), modified organically, was added as a nanofiller to increase their thermal and mechanical strength. The prepared samples were physically characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). The physicochemical behavior (i.e., swelling, erosion, dissolution/drug release behavior and rat skin permeation) was also assessed. Comparisons were made with the currently marketed free CTX dosage form. (4) Results: TGA of the nanoformulation showed increased thermostability. XRD revealed its semi-crystalline nature. SEM depicted a homogeneous drug-loaded SA/PVA nanocomposite with an average size ranging between 300 and 500 nm. EDX confirmed the elemental composition and uniform distribution of mixing components. The water entrapment efficiency study showed that the highest swelling and erosion ratio is encountered with the nanoformulations S100(3) and S100D15(3). Ex vivo permeation revealed a bi-step discharge mode with an early burst liberation chased by continued drug discharge of devised nanoparticles (NPs). The dissolution studies of the drug-loaded polymer nanocomposites elicited sustained pH-dependent drug release. The cumulative drug release was the highest (90.93%) with S100D15(3). (5) Conclusion: S100D15(3) was the finest formulation. To the best of our knowledge, we also pioneered the use of solvent casting for the preparation of such nanoformulations. Polymers and reinforcing agent, concentrations and pH were rate-deterring features for the preparation of the optimized formulation. Thus, CTX-loaded SA/PVA-MMT reinforced nanocomposite appeared as a promising nanodrug delivery system (NDDS) based on its in vitro physicochemical properties.

Fabrication of Ethosomes Containing Tocopherol Acetate to Enhance Transdermal Permeation: In Vitro and Ex Vivo Characterizations

Background: Tocopherol acetate (TA) is known as a skin moisturizing and photoprotective agent. One major drawback with tocopherol and its derivatives remains its limited stability. Aim: To develop highly stable TA-containing ethosomal gel (TAEG) as an advanced dosage form. Methods: A cold method technique was used to produce the ethosomes. An in vitro evaluation of viscosity, conductivity, and pH stability was carried out for three months. An in vitro physical characterization of the nanoparticles (NPs) that included particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analysis was then performed. Organoleptic evaluation, thermostability at 8 °C, 25 °C, 40 °C and 40 °C ± 75% RH, pH, conductivity, viscosity, and spreadability measurements were also performed in vitro for three months. An ex vivo permeation study was performed in phosphate-buffered solution (1× PBS; pH 5.5 or pH 7.4) at 37 ± 0.2 °C by using rat abdominal skin and the Franz diffusion cell method. The data of three independent experiments were expressed as mean ± SD. A two-way ANOVA was applied to compare data on TAEG versus TA control gel (TACG). Results: PS of the ethosomes was in the range of 144−289 nm. A total of nine formulations were developed. Optimized TAEG formulation (TA-5) was selected based on the highest entrapment efficiency (EE) of 99.71%, while the stability, the PS, and the uniformity-based polydispersity index (PDI) were also among the best. TA-5 exhibited smooth spherical ethosomal NPs with PS of 200.6 nm, ZP value of −18.6 V, and PDI of 0.465. Stability data obtained for TA-5 in terms of rheology, conductivity, and pH presented no significant change (p > 0.05) during the entire study duration. Rheological studies indicated that TA-5 followed a non-Newtonian behavior of shear thinning system. The ex vivo drug permeation was 44.55 ± 0.01% in TA-5 and the drug retention in skin was 51.20%, which was significantly higher than TACG as observed after 24 h permeation study (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The newly developed TAEG formulation appears promising to enhance the effectivity of TA and its topical application.

Development and Characterizations of Pullulan and Maltodextrin-Based Oral Fast-Dissolving Films Employing a Box-Behnken Experimental Design

Migraine is a neurological disorder characterized by severe headaches, visual aversions, auditory, and olfactory disorders, accompanied by nausea and vomiting. Zolmitriptan (ZMT^®) is a potent 5HT1B/1D serotonin receptor agonist frequently used for the treatment of migraine. It has erratic absorption from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), but its oral bioavailability is low (40-45%) due to the hepatic metabolism. This makes it an ideal candidate for oral fast dissolving formulations. Hence, the current study was undertaken to design and develop oral fast-dissolving films (OFDFs) containing ZMT for migraine treatment. The OFDFs were formulated by the solvent casting method (SCM) using Pullulan (PU) and maltodextrin (MDX) as film-forming agents and propylene glycol (PG) as a plasticizer. The strategy was designed using Box-Behnken experimental design considering the proportion of PU:MDX and percentage of PG as independent variables. The effectiveness of the OFDF's was measured based on the following responses: drug release at five min, disintegration time (D-time), and tensile strength (TS). The influence of formulation factors, including percent elongation (%E), thickness, water content, moisture absorption, and folding endurance on ZMT-OFDFs, were also studied. The results showed a successful fabrication of stable ZMT-OFDFs, with surface uniformity and amorphous shape of ZMT in fabricated films. The optimized formulation showed a remarkable rapid dissolution, over 90% within the first 5 min, a fast D-time of 18 s, and excellent mechanical characteristics. Improved maximum plasma concentration (C max) and area under the curve (AUC 0-t) in animals (rats) treated with ZMT-OFDFs compared to those treated with an intra-gastric (i-g) suspension of ZMT were also observed. Copolymer OFDFs with ZMT is an exciting proposition with great potential for the treatment of migraine headache. This study offers a promising strategy for developing ZMT-OFDFs using SCM. ZMT-OFDFs showed remarkable rapid dissolution and fast D-time, which might endeavor ZMT-OFDFs as an auspicious alternative approach to improve patient compliance and shorten the onset time of ZMT in migraine treatment.