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Alcaráz N, Salcedo-Tello P, González-Barrios R, Torres-Arciga K, Guzmán-Ramos K. Underlying Mechanisms of the Protective Effects of Lifestyle Factors in the Prevention of Age-Related Diseases. Arch Med Res 2024; 55:103014. [PMID: 38861840 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2024.103014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
The rise in life expectancy has significantly increased the occurrence of age-related chronic diseases, leading to escalating expenses for both society and individuals. Among the main factors influencing health and lifespan, lifestyle takes a forefront position. Specifically, nutrition, mental activity, and physical exercise influence the molecular and functional mechanisms that contribute to the prevention of major age-related diseases. Gaining deeper insights into the mechanisms that drive the positive effects of healthy lifestyles is valuable for creating interventions to prevent or postpone the development of chronic degenerative diseases. This review summarizes the main mechanisms that underlie the positive effect of lifestyle factors in counteracting the major age-related diseases involving brain health, musculoskeletal function, cancer, frailty, and cardiovascular diseases, among others. This knowledge will help to identify high-risk populations for targeted intervention trials and discover new biomarkers associated with healthy aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Alcaráz
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Pamela Salcedo-Tello
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rodrigo González-Barrios
- Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Laboratorio de regulación de la cromatina y genómica, Mexico City, México
| | - Karla Torres-Arciga
- Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Laboratorio de regulación de la cromatina y genómica, Mexico City, México; Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Kioko Guzmán-Ramos
- Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Lerma, Mexico State, Mexico.
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2
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Michalkova R, Mirossay L, Kello M, Mojzisova G, Baloghova J, Podracka A, Mojzis J. Anticancer Potential of Natural Chalcones: In Vitro and In Vivo Evidence. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10354. [PMID: 37373500 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
There is no doubt that significant progress has been made in tumor therapy in the past decades. However, the discovery of new molecules with potential antitumor properties still remains one of the most significant challenges in the field of anticancer therapy. Nature, especially plants, is a rich source of phytochemicals with pleiotropic biological activities. Among a plethora of phytochemicals, chalcones, the bioprecursors of flavonoid and isoflavonoids synthesis in higher plants, have attracted attention due to the broad spectrum of biological activities with potential clinical applications. Regarding the antiproliferative and anticancer effects of chalcones, multiple mechanisms of action including cell cycle arrest, induction of different forms of cell death and modulation of various signaling pathways have been documented. This review summarizes current knowledge related to mechanisms of antiproliferative and anticancer effects of natural chalcones in different types of malignancies including breast cancers, cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, lung cancers, renal and bladder cancers, and melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radka Michalkova
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia
| | - Ladislav Mirossay
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia
| | - Martin Kello
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia
| | - Gabriela Mojzisova
- Center of Clinical and Preclinical Research MEDIPARK, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia
| | - Janette Baloghova
- Department of Dermatovenerology, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia
| | - Anna Podracka
- Department of Dermatovenerology, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia
| | - Jan Mojzis
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia
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3
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Liu Z, Yokoyama NN, Song L, Xie J, Sadeghi Z, Wu YX, Yee S, Wu XR, Wang B, Uchio E, Zi X. The Potent Anti-Tumor Effects of Rhodiola Drinking Are Associated with the Inhibition of the mTOR Pathway and Modification of Tumor Metabolism in the UPII-Mutant Ha-Ras Model. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:3086. [PMID: 37370698 PMCID: PMC10296277 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15123086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: SHR-5 has been used as an "adaptogen" for enhancing physical and mental performance and for fighting stress in the healthy population. The purpose of this study is to determine the chemopreventive efficacy of SHR-5 for superficial bladder cancer and to investigate the underlying mechanisms of action. Methods: UPII-mutant Ha-ras bladder-cancer-transgenic mice, that developed low-grade and noninvasive papillary transitional urothelial cell carcinoma, were fed with 1.25 and 6.25 mg/mL SHR-5 in drinking water for 6 months. The survival of the mice, obstructive uropathy, tumor burden and morphology, and proliferation were evaluated by pathological, molecular, metabolic, and statistical analyses. Results: Approximately 95% or more of the male UPII-mutant Ha-ras mice that drank SHR-5 daily survived over 6 months of age, while only 33.3% of those mice that drank normal water survived over 6 months of age (p < 0.0001); SHR-5 drinking exposure also reduced tumor-bearing bladder weight and urinary tract obstruction and inhibited mTOR signaling in neoplastic tissues. Global metabolic analysis revealed that SHR-5 resulted in increased phenolic metabolites and decreased CoA, a critical metabolic cofactor for lipid metabolism. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the potential of SHR-5 as an anti-aging agent for bladder cancer prevention through reshaping tumor metabolism via the inhibition of the mTOR signaling. Global metabolomics profiling provides a unique and efficient tool for studying the mechanisms of complex herb extracts' action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongbo Liu
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
| | - Noriko N Yokoyama
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
| | - Liankun Song
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
| | - Jun Xie
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
| | - Zhina Sadeghi
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
| | - Yi Xi Wu
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
| | - Sarah Yee
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
| | - Xue-Ru Wu
- Veterans Affairs New York Harbor Healthcare System, New York, NY 10010, USA;
| | - Beverly Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA;
| | - Edward Uchio
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA
| | - Xiaolin Zi
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA; (Z.L.); (N.N.Y.); (L.S.); (J.X.); (Z.S.); (Y.X.W.); (E.U.)
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA
- Veterans Affairs Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA 90822, USA
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4
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Santibanez JF, Villar VH, Echeverria C. Current and Future Cancer Chemoprevention Strategies. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15051543. [PMID: 37242785 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15051543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for nearly 10 million deaths in 2020 and ranking as the second-leading cause of death in economically developed countries [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan F Santibanez
- Group for Molecular Oncology, Institute for Medical Research, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Dr. Subotica 4, POB 102, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia
- Centro Integrativo de Biología y Química Aplicada (CIBQA), Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago 8370993, Chile
| | - Victor H Villar
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK
| | - Cesar Echeverria
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Nanomedicine and Genomic, Faculty of Medicine, University of Atacama, Copiapo 1532502, Chile
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Xu X, Tian X, Song L, Xie J, Liao JC, Meeks JJ, Wu XR, Gin GE, Wang B, Uchio E, Zi X. Kawain Inhibits Urinary Bladder Carcinogenesis through Epigenetic Inhibition of LSD1 and Upregulation of H3K4 Methylation. Biomolecules 2023; 13:521. [PMID: 36979456 PMCID: PMC10046577 DOI: 10.3390/biom13030521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological evidence suggests that kava (Piper methysticum Forst) drinks may reduce the risk of cancer in South Pacific Island smokers. However, little is known about the anti-carcinogenic effects of kava on tobacco smoking-related bladder cancer and its underlying mechanisms. Here we show that dietary feeding of kawain (a major active component in kava root extracts) to mice either before or after hydroxy butyl(butyl) nitrosamine (OH-BBN) carcinogen exposure slows down urinary bladder carcinogenesis and prolongs the survival of the OH-BBN-exposed mice. OH-BBN-induced bladder tumors exhibit significantly increased expression of lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1), accompanied by decreased levels of H3K4 mono-methylation compared to normal bladder epithelium, whereas dietary kawain reverses the effects of OH-BBN on H3K4 mono-methylation. Human bladder cancer tumor tissues at different pathological grades also show significantly increased expression of LSD1 and decreased levels of H3K4 mono-methylation compared to normal urothelium. In addition, kava root extracts and the kavalactones kawain and methysticin all increase the levels of H3K4 mono- and di-methylation, leading to inhibitory effects on cell migration. Taken together, our results suggest that modification of histone lysine methylation may represent a new approach to bladder cancer prevention and treatment and that kavalactones may be promising agents for bladder cancer interception in both current and former smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Xu
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
| | - Xuejiao Tian
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
| | - Liankun Song
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
- Veterans Affairs Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA 90822, USA
| | - Jun Xie
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
| | - Joseph C. Liao
- Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, 3801 Miranda Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Joshua J. Meeks
- Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, 820 S Damen Ave, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Xue-Ru Wu
- Veterans Affairs New York Harbor Healthcare System, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - Greg E. Gin
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
- Veterans Affairs Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA 90822, USA
| | - Beverly Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA
| | - Edward Uchio
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA
| | - Xiaolin Zi
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
- Veterans Affairs Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA 90822, USA
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA
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Liu Z, Song L, Xie J, Wu XR, Gin GE, Wang B, Uchio E, Zi X. Kavalactone Kawain Impedes Urothelial Tumorigenesis in UPII-Mutant Ha-Ras Mice via Inhibition of mTOR Signaling and Alteration of Cancer Metabolism. Molecules 2023; 28:1666. [PMID: 36838656 PMCID: PMC9966944 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
UPII-mutant Ha-ras transgenic mice develop urothelial hyperplasia and low-grade papillary carcinoma, which mimics human non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). We investigated the effects and mechanisms of kawain, a main kavalactone in the kava plant, on oncogenic Ha-ras-driven urothelial carcinoma in these mice. The mice were fed at six weeks of age with vehicle control or kawain (6 g/kg) formulated food for approximately five months. Seventy-eight percent of the mice or more fed with kawain food survived more than six months of age, whereas only 32% control food-fed male mice survived, (p = 0.0082). The mean wet bladder weights (a surrogate for tumor burden) of UPII-mutant Ha-ras transgenic mice with kawain diet was decreased by approximately 56% compared to those fed with the control diet (p = 0.035). The kawain diet also significantly reduced the occurrence of hydronephrosis and hematuria in UPII-mutant Ha-ras transgenic mice. Histological examination and immunohistochemistry analysis revealed that vehicle control-treated mice displayed more urothelial carcinoma and Ki67-positive cells in the bladder compared to kawain treated mice. Global metabolic profiling of bladder tumor samples from mice fed with kawain food showed significantly more enrichment of serotonin and less abundance of xylulose, prostaglandin A2, D2 and E2 compared to those from control diet-fed mice, suggesting decreased shunting of glucose to the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and reduced inflammation. In addition, kawain selectively inhibited the growth of human bladder cancer cell lines with a significant suppression of 4E-BP1 expression and rpS6 phosphorylation. These observations indicate a potential impact of kawain consumption on bladder cancer prevention by rewiring the metabolic programs of the tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongbo Liu
- Department of Urology, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
| | - Liankun Song
- Department of Urology, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
- Veterans Affairs Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA 90822, USA
| | - Jun Xie
- Department of Urology, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
| | - Xue-Ru Wu
- Department of Urology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Veterans Affairs New York Harbor Healthcare System, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - Greg E. Gin
- Department of Urology, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
- Veterans Affairs Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA 90822, USA
| | - Beverly Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
| | - Edward Uchio
- Department of Urology, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
| | - Xiaolin Zi
- Department of Urology, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
- Veterans Affairs Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA 90822, USA
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA 92868, USA
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Liu S, Liu Z, Piao C, Zhang Z, Kong C, Yin L, Liu X. Flavokawain A is a natural inhibitor of PRMT5 in bladder cancer. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2022; 41:293. [PMID: 36199122 PMCID: PMC9533510 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-022-02500-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) regulate protein biological activity by modulating arginine methylation in cancer and are increasingly recognized as potential drug targets. Inhibitors targeting PRMTs are currently in the early phases of clinical trials and more candidate drugs are needed. Flavokawain A (FKA), extracted from kava plant, has been recognized as a potential chemotherapy drug in bladder cancer (BC), but its action mechanism remains unclear. METHODS We first determined the role of a type II PRMT, PRMT5, in BC tissue samples and performed cytological experiments. We then utilized bioinformatics tools, including computational simulation, virtual screening, molecular docking, and energy analysis, to identify the potential use of PRMT5 inhibitors for BC treatment. In vitro and in vivo co-IP and mutation assays were performed to elucidate the molecular mechanism of PRMT5 inhibitor. Pharmacology experiments like bio-layer interferometry, CETSA, and pull-down assays were further used to provide direct evidence of the complex binding process. RESULTS Among PRMTs, PRMT5 was identified as a therapeutic target for BC. PRMT5 expression in BC was correlated with poor prognosis and manipulating its expression could affect cancer cell growth. Through screening and extensive experimental validation, we recognized that a natural product, FKA, was a small new inhibitor molecule for PRMT5. We noticed that the product could inhibit the action of BC, in vitro and in vivo, by inhibiting PRMT5. We further demonstrated that FKA blocks the symmetric arginine dimethylation of histone H2A and H4 by binding to Y304 and F580 of PRMT5. CONCLUSIONS In summary, our research strongly suggests that PRMT5 is a potential epigenetic therapeutic target in bladder cancer, and that FKA can be used as a targeted inhibitor of PRMT5 for the treatment of bladder cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangjie Liu
- grid.412636.40000 0004 1757 9485Department of Urology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001 Liaoning China
| | - Zhuonan Liu
- grid.412636.40000 0004 1757 9485Department of Urology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001 Liaoning China
| | - Chiyuan Piao
- grid.412636.40000 0004 1757 9485Department of Urology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001 Liaoning China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- grid.412636.40000 0004 1757 9485Department of Urology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001 Liaoning China
| | - Chuize Kong
- grid.412636.40000 0004 1757 9485Department of Urology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001 Liaoning China
| | - Lei Yin
- grid.412636.40000 0004 1757 9485Department of Urology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001 Liaoning China
| | - Xi Liu
- grid.412636.40000 0004 1757 9485Department of Urology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001 Liaoning China
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Song L, Mino M, Yamak J, Nguyen V, Lopez D, Pham V, Fazelpour A, Le V, Fu D, Tippin M, Uchio E, Zi X. Flavokawain A Reduces Tumor-Initiating Properties and Stemness of Prostate Cancer. Front Oncol 2022; 12:943846. [PMID: 35912174 PMCID: PMC9326116 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.943846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated the in vivo chemopreventive efficacy of flavokawain A (FKA), a novel chalcone from the kava plant, in prostate carcinogenesis models. However, the mechanisms of the anticarcinogenic effects of FKA remain largely unknown. We evaluated the effect of FKA on prostate tumor spheroid formation by prostate cancer stem cells, which were sorted out from CD44+/CD133+ prostate cancer cells 22Rv1 and DU145. FKA treatment significantly decreased both the size and numbers of the tumor spheroids over different generations of spheroid passages. In addition, the dietary feeding of FKA-formulated food to Nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) mice bearing CD44+/CD133+ 22Rv1 xenograft tumors resulted in a significant reduction of tumor growth compared to those fed with vehicle control food–fed mice. Furthermore, the expression of stem cell markers, such as Nanog, Oct4, and CD44, were markedly downregulated in both tumor spheroids and tumor tissues. We also observed that FKA inhibits Ubc12 neddylation, c-Myc, and keratin-8 expression in both CD44+/CD133+ prostate tumor spheroids and xenograft tumors. Our results suggest that FKA can reduce the tumor-initiating properties and stemness of prostate cancer, which provides a new mechanism for the chemoprevention efficacy of FKA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liankun Song
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Merci Mino
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Jana Yamak
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Vyvyan Nguyen
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Derron Lopez
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Victor Pham
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Ali Fazelpour
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Vinh Le
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Dongjun Fu
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Matthew Tippin
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
| | - Edward Uchio
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Orange, CA, United States
| | - Xiaolin Zi
- Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, Orang, CA, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Orange, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Xiaolin Zi,
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