Phytochemical Analysis, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties of Thymus zygis L. and Thymus willdenowii Boiss. Essential Oils

Chemical Profiling and Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Hemolytic Properties of Euphorbia calyptrata (l.) Essential oils: in Vitro and in Silico Analysis

In this work, we sought to validate the use of Euphorbia calyptrata (L.), a Saharan and Mediterranean medicinal plant, in traditional pharmacopeia. GC-MS/MS identified volatile compounds of potential therapeutic interest. Antioxidant tests were performed using β-carotene decolorization, DPPH radical scavenging, FRAP, beta-carotene bleaching, and TAC. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated on solid and liquid media for bacterial and fungal strains to determine the zone of inhibition and the minimum growth concentration (MIC) of the microbes tested. The hemolytic activity of these essential oils was assessed on red blood cells isolated from rat blood. Phytochemical characterization of the terpenic compounds by GC-MS/MS revealed 31 compounds, with alpha-Pinene dominating (35.96 %). The antioxidant power of the essential oils tested revealed an IC50 of 67.28 μg/mL (DPPH), EC50 of 80.25.08±1.42 μg/mL (FRAP), 94.83±2.11 μg/mL (beta carotene) and 985.07±0.70 μg/mL (TAC). Evaluating solid media's antibacterial and antifungal properties revealed a zone of inhibition between 10.28 mm and 25.80 mm and 31.48 and 34.21 mm, respectively. On liquid media, the MIC ranged from 10.27 μg/mL to 24.91 μg/mL for bacterial strains and from 9.32 μg/mL to 19.08 μg/mL for fungal strains. In molecular docking analysis, the compounds naphthalene, shogunal, and manol oxide showed the greatest activity against NADPH oxidase, with Glide G scores of -5.294, -5.218 and -5.161 kcal/mol, respectively. For antibacterial activity against E. coli beta-ketoacyl-[acyl carrier protein] synthase, the most potent molecules were cis-Calamenene, alpha.-Muurolene and Terpineol, with Glide G-scores of -6.804, -6.424 and -6.313 kcal/mol, respectively. Hemolytic activity revealed a final inhibition of 9.42±0.33 % for a 100 μg/mL concentration. The essential oils tested have good antioxidant, antimicrobial, and hemolytic properties thanks to their rich phytochemical composition, and molecular docking analysis confirmed their biological potency.

The chemical composition and the preservative, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects of Thymus broussonetii Boiss. essential oil: an in vitro and in silico approach

Introduction

The aim of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and preservative efficacy of Thymus broussonetii Boiss. essential oil (EO) in a topically applied formulation using a challenge test.

Methods

The essential oil was extracted from the aerial part of T. broussonetii using hydrodistillation, and the obtained EO was further analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The antioxidant effect of the EO was evaluated using three methods: the inhibition of free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), β-carotene-linoleic acid, and the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) methods. The antimicrobial activity and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of this EO were assayed by the disk-diffusion method and the broth microdilution method, respectively. The preservative efficacy of T. broussonetii EO was assayed at 1% and 2% (v/w) in a topical cream formulation using a challenge test against standard-specific microorganisms recommended by the European Pharmacopoeia. Furthermore, the identified phytochemical compounds were docked for their effect on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, human casein kinase 1 alpha 1 (CSNK1A1), glycogen synthase kinase 3, Staphylococcus aureus nucleoside diphosphate kinase, Escherichia coli beta-ketoacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] synthase, Pseudomonas aeruginosa LasR ligand-binding domain, and sterol 14-alpha demethylase (CYP51) from Candida albicans. The ADME/toxicity was predicted by analyzing the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion parameters.

Results and discussion

chemical composition of the EO revealed the presence of thymol (63.09%), p-cymene (11%), and γ-terpinene (8.99%) as the major components. The antioxidant assays revealed that the essential oil exhibited strong antioxidant activity, as indicated by the minimum inhibitory concentration IC50 (IC50 = 210 ± 0.3 μg/mL for the DPPH assay, IC50 = 145 ± 0.1 μg/mL for the β-carotene assay, and IC50 = 84 ± 0.21 μg/mL for the FRAP assay) when compared to quercetin and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) as controls. The investigated essential oil exhibited important antimicrobial activity against all the tested microorganisms, and the MICs of the EO against bacteria and fungi were 0.02%-1%. Moreover, the EO of T. broussonetii evaluated at 2% (v/w) in a cream formulation succeeded in satisfying the A criteria for preservation efficacy against S. aureus, E. coli, and Aspergillus brasiliensis but exhibited less efficacy against P. aeruginosa (1.78 log reduction in the number of CFU/g after 7 days of evaluation) and C. albicans (1.09 log reduction in the number of CFU/g after 14 days of evaluation) when compared to the synthetic preservative phenoxyethanol 1% (v/w). In silico results showed that the antimicrobial activity of T. broussonetii EO is mostly attributed to thymol, terpinen-4-ol, and aromadendrene, while the antioxidant activity is attributed to thymol. These results indicate that the EO of T. broussonetii possesses important antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and can, therefore, be used as a natural preservative ingredient in the cosmetic industry.

Carvacrol and Thymol Content Affects the Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity of Origanum compactum and Thymus zygis Essential Oils

Essential oils are of great interest due to their potent pharmaceutical and biological activities. In this study, essential oils extracted from Origanum compactum and Thymus zygis originating from the Middle Atlas of Morocco were investigated. Their chemical compositions were analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, while the assessment of the trapping power of the radical (DPPH: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) and the reducing antioxidant potential of ferric ions (FRAP: Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) were performed in order to evaluate the antioxidant activity. Their antibacterial potency was tested against six bacterial strains through the disk diffusion method. The chromatography analyses of the extracted essential oils highlighted the presence of two main components, namely carvacrol at 75.70% in O. compactum and thymol at 40.67% in T. zygis. The antioxidant activity tests showed that both essential oils demonstrated a significant antioxidant activity comparable to the positive control (e.g., ascorbic acid). The antibacterial activity results showed a strong antimicrobial effect for both essential oils, compared to synthetic antibiotics. This study affirms the presence of bioactive components with interesting antioxidant and antibacterial activities in the essential oils extracted from Origanum compactum and Thymus zygis, which could find several applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries through the substitution of synthetic antioxidants and antibiotics.

Zingerone inhibits biofilm formation and enhances antibiotic efficacy against Salmonella biofilm

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi is a significant cause of typhoid fever and a major public health problem. The ability of S. Typhi to form biofilms on living and non-living surfaces results in antibiotic resistance and poses a major challenge in health care. In this study, we assessed the ability of zingerone alone and in combination with antibiotics against the motility phenotypes and biofilm-forming ability of S. Typhi. Results showed that zingerone effectively reduced the swimming, swarming, and twitching phenotypes and exhibited biofilm inhibition potential. Moreover, zingerone enhanced the antibiofilm activity of ciprofloxacin and kanamycin. Microscopic analysis revealed a thinner biofilm in the presence of zingerone, which may have enhanced the antibiofilm efficacy of the antibiotics. The microscopic analysis showed that the presence of zingerone resulted in a reduction in the thickness of the biofilm, potentially increasing the antibiofilm efficacy of the antibiotics. In silico molecular docking and simulation studies further indicated that zingerone may bind to the fimbriae subunits (FimA, FimC, FimH, and FimY) of S. Typhi and form stable interactions. These findings provide important insights into the potential of zingerone to target biofilm-associated Salmonella infections. Further research is considered a promising option for designing innovative approaches to prevent infections associated with biofilms. Schematic representation of the role of zingerone in biofilm, motility inhibition and molecular interactions with biofilm associated proteins.

A Status Review on Health-Promoting Properties and Global Regulation of Essential Oils

Since ancient times, essential oils (EOs) have been known for their therapeutic potential against many health issues. Recent studies suggest that EOs may contribute to the regulation and modulation of various biomarkers and cellular pathways responsible for metabolic health as well as the development of many diseases, including cancer, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and bacterial infections. During metabolic dysfunction and even infections, the immune system becomes compromised and releases pro-inflammatory cytokines that lead to serious health consequences. The bioactive compounds present in EOs (especially terpenoids and phenylpropanoids) with different chemical compositions from fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants confer protection against these metabolic and infectious diseases through anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-microbial properties. In this review, we have highlighted some targeted physiological and cellular actions through which EOs may exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-microbial properties. In addition, it has been observed that EOs from specific plant sources may play a significant role in the prevention of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, microbial infections, and increasing breast milk production, along with improvements in heart, liver, and brain health. The current status of the bioactive activities of EOs and their therapeutic effects are covered in this review. However, with respect to the health benefits of EOs, it is very important to regulate the dose and usage of EOs to reduce their adverse health effects. Therefore, we specified that some countries have their own regulatory bodies while others follow WHO and FAO standards and legislation for the use of EOs.

Physicochemical Characterization and Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oils of M. pulegium (L.), M. suaveolens (Ehrh.) and M. spicata (L.) from Moroccan Middle-Atlas

The cosmetics and food fields are based on the use of synthetic substances to protect their products against oxidation. However, synthetic antioxidants were reported to have negative effects on human health. The interest to develop natural antioxidants from plants has been growing in recent decades. The aim of this study was to determine the antioxidant properties of three essential oils (EOs) of M. pulegium (L.), M. suaveolens (Ehrh.) and M. spicata (L.) from the Azrou and Ifrane regions. The organoleptic characteristics, yields and physical properties were determined for the selected EOs. Their chemical compositions were identified using GC-MS; then, their antioxidant activities were evaluated using the DPPH^• free radical scavenging activity and were compared with the ascorbic acid standard. The determined physicochemical parameters of dry matter and EOs demonstrated their good quality. The analysis of the EOs showed the dominance of pulegone (68.86-70.92%) and piperitenone (24.81%), piperitenone oxide (74.69-60.3%), and carvone (71.56-54.79%) and limonene (10.5-9.69%) for M. pulegium, M. suaveolens and M. spicata, respectively, from Azrou and Ifrane. Additionally, the antiradical tests demonstrated the remarkable power of these EOs, especially M. pulegium EO (IC₅₀ = 15.93 mg/mL), which recorded the best activity compared with ascorbic acid (IC₅₀ = 8.849 mg/mL). The obtained results indicated that these EOs could be applied as natural antioxidants in the food industry.

Toxicity test of flavonoid compounds from the leaves of Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq. using in vitro culture cell models

Background and Aim

The flavonoids from mistletoe are thought to have antimicrobial action. This encouraging finding supports the benefits of medicinal plants as a substitute for synthetic antimicrobials, thus promoting healthy lifestyles. In contrast, it is known that the use of topical drug formulations made from flavonoids of mistletoe (Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq. Loranthaceae) with Indonesian name, Benalu duku (BD) is required in skin cell irritation. This study aimed to assess the toxic effects of the flavonoid substances of BD, as an initial screening.

Materials and Methods

A myeloma cell line was cultured in Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium, and the Baby Hamster Kidney clone 12 (BHK₂₁) cell line was cultured in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium from stock (±9 × 10⁷ cells/mL), and 1.2 mL of culture were distributed into each well of a microtiter plate. Subsequently, 0.2 mL of serially diluted flavonoid compounds (0.5-3 μg/mL) were added to 12 wells for each concentration, as trial groups (including control groups), followed by a 2-day incubation. Observations were performed based on the cytopathic effect (CPE) using an inverted microscope at a magnification of 100×.

Results

Cytopathic effect was detected on the microtiter plate wells for the groups of myeloma and BHK₂₁ cells at a flavonoid concentration of 0.5 μg/mL-3 μg/mL.

Conclusion

Flavonoid compounds from BD were safely used for topical treatment of cancer cells at a concentration <2.491 μg/mL, whereas for non-cancerous cells, a concentration <2.582 μg/mL was sufficient (p < 0.05).

Plant Spices as a Source of Antimicrobial Synergic Molecules to Treat Bacterial and Viral Co-Infections

The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the lack of antiviral agents available for human use, while the complexity of the physiological changes caused by coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) imposed the prescription of multidrug pharmacotherapy to treat infected patients. In a significant number of cases, it was necessary to add antibiotics to the prescription to decrease the risk of co-infections, preventing the worsening of the patient's condition. However, the precautionary use of antibiotics corroborated to increase bacterial resistance. Since the development of vaccines for COVID-19, the pandemic scenario has changed, but the development of new antiviral drugs is still a major challenge. Research for new drugs with synergistic activity against virus and resistant bacteria can produce drug leads to be used in the treatment of mild cases of COVID-19 and to fight other viruses and new viral diseases. Following the repurposing approach, plant spices have been searched for antiviral lead compounds, since the toxic effects of plants that are traditionally consumed are already known, speeding up the drug discovery process. The need for effective drugs in the context of viral diseases is discussed in this review, with special focus on plant-based spices with antiviral and antibiotic activity. The activity of plants against resistant bacteria, the diversity of the components present in plant extracts and the synergistic interaction of these metabolites and industrialized antibiotics are discussed, with the aim of contributing to the development of antiviral and antibiotic drugs. A literature search was performed in electronic databases such as Science Direct; SciELO (Scientific Electronic Library Online); LILACS (Latin American and Caribbean Literature on Health Sciences); Elsevier, SpringerLink; and Google Scholar, using the descriptors: antiviral plants, antibacterial plants, coronavirus treatment, morbidities and COVID-19, bacterial resistance, resistant antibiotics, hospital-acquired infections, spices of plant origin, coronaviruses and foods, spices with antiviral effect, drug prescriptions and COVID-19, and plant synergism. Articles published in English in the period from 2020 to 2022 and relevant to the topic were used as the main inclusion criteria.

Essential Oils of Tagetes minuta and Lavandula coronopifolia from Djibouti: Chemical Composition, Antibacterial Activity and Cytotoxic Activity against Various Human Cancer Cell Lines

The chemical composition of the essential oils of two plants (Tagetes minuta L. and Lavandula coronopifolia L.) harvested from the Day region (in the north of Djibouti) is the subject of this study. The extraction of essential oils was carried out by hydrodistillation, and the average yield was obtained at a rate of approximately 0.25% for Tagetes minuta L. and 0.42% for Lavandula coronopifolia L. The analyses of these essential oils by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry identified 13 compounds in the essential oil of Tagetes minuta L., including dihydrotagetone (20.8%), artemisia (17.9%), (Z)-tagetenone (12.4%), (-)-spathulenol (11.0%) and estragole (9.5%), were obtained as majority compounds, with a percentage of 71.6%. The essential oil of Lavandula coronopifolia L. is characterized by the presence of 42 compounds, including cis-caryophyllene (18.9%), dehydronerolidol (12.8%), isolongifolanone (11.2%), caryophyllene oxide (8.2%), 10-epi-β-eudesmol (7.7%) and humulene (5.1%), were obtained as the majority chemical constituents, with a percentage of 63.9%. The antimicrobial activities of the essential oils at concentrations of 5% were measured against 12 bacterial strains (Gram positive: Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 29213), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212), Streptococcus agalactiae (ATCC 27956), Staphylococcus epidermidis and Corynebacterium sp.; Gram Negative: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 700603), Acinetobacter baumannii (ATCC 19606), Shigella sonnei (ATCC 9290), Salmonella enterica sv. Typhimurium (ATCC 13311) and Enterobacter cloacae), and the results of in vitro experiments showed inhibitory effects against most strains tested except Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Streptococcus agalactiae. Additionally, both oils were tested for their ability to selectively kill 13 human cancer cells (K562, A549, HCT116, PC3, U87-MG, MIA-Paca2, HEK293, NCI-N87, RT4, U2OS, A2780, MRC-5 and JIMT-T1), and the results obtained, according to the values of IC50, show the significant activity of two essential oils, particularly on the HCT116 and A2780 lines, which present values between 0.25 µg/mL and 0.45 µg/mL, respectively.

In-Depth Study of Thymus vulgaris Essential Oil: Towards Understanding the Antibacterial Target Mechanism and Toxicological and Pharmacological Aspects

Questions have been raised apropos the emerging problem of microbial resistance, which may pose a great hazard to the human health. Among biosafe compounds are essential oils which captured consumer draw due to their multifunctional properties compared to chemical medication drugs. Here, we examined the chemical profile and the mechanism(s) of action of the Thymus vulgaris essential oil (TVEO) against a Gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica Typhimurium ATTCC 10028 (S. enterica Typhimurium ATTCC 10028) and two Gram-positive bacteria Staphyloccocus aureus ATCC 6538 (S. aureus ATCC 6538) and Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 19117 (L. monocytogenes ATCC 19117). Findings showed that TVEO was principally composed of thymol, o-cymene, and γ-terpinene with 47.44, 16.55, and 7.80%, respectively. Molecular docking simulations stipulated that thymol and β-sesquiphellandrene (a minor compound at 1.37%) could target multiple bacterial pathways including topoisomerase II and DNA and RNA polymerases of the three tested bacteria. This result pointed plausible impairments of the pathogenic bacteria cell replication and transcription processes. Through computational approach, the VEGA quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) model, we revealed that among twenty-six TVEO compounds, sixteen had no toxic effects and could be safe for human consumption as compared to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs (ciprofloxacin and rifamycin SV). Assessed by the SwissADME server, the pharmacokinetic profile of all identified TVEO compounds define their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties and were assessed. In order to predict their biological activity spectrum based on their chemical structure, all TVEO compounds were subjected to PASS (Prediction of Activity Spectra for Substances) online tool. Results indicated that the tested compounds could have multiple biological activities and various enzymatic targets. Findings of our study support that identified compounds of TVEO can be a safe and effective alternative to synthetic drugs and can easily combats hazardous multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Correlation between the chemical composition and the antimicrobial properties of seven samples of essential oils of endemic Thymes in Morocco against multi-resistant bacteria and pathogenic fungi

Thymus vulgaris, Thymus satureioides, and Thymus zygis are endemic Moroccan species that are intensively used due to their extensive medications and culinary properties. To enhance and preserve these overexploited species, the effect of provenance on the chemical composition of essential oils and antimicrobial activity against human pathogens were studied. Essential oils (EO) obtained by hydrodistillation from the flowering tops of thyme species were analyzed by GC-SM. The determination of minimum inhibitory (MIC), bactericidal (MBC), and fungicide (MFC) concentrations of EO were studied by microplate microdilution. The correlation between the chemical composition of EO and antimicrobial properties were evaluated using R software. The samples studied gave variable yields, ranging from 0.70 ± 0.03% to 4.12 ± 0.21%. The main constituents of Thymus vulgaris harvested from the municipality of El Hammam are carvacrol (68.8%), γ-terpinene (11.5%), and p-cymene (3.9%), while borneol (41.3% and 31.7%) and carvacrol (14.6% and 9.8%) are the most abundant in Thymus satureioides of the communes of Tata and Tigrigra respectively. For Thymus zygis, the results revealed the dominance of carvacrol (51.7% and 57.5%) for the municipalities of Tigrigra and Ain Aghbal, thymol (47.1% and 42.1%) for the municipalities of Bensmim and Timahdite respectively. These chemical profiles have similarities, but also reveal differences from the results given in the literature. In addition, the essential oils most active towards the microorganisms evaluated were those of Thymus vulgaris, followed by Thymus zygis and Thymus satureioides. These EO have very powerful MIC (MIC ⩽ 300 μg/ml) against Gram-negative bacteria, and in particular, concerning Enterobacters cloacae, Citrobacter koseri, and Acinetobacter baumannii. Thymus zygis EO is the most active on candidates compared to Thymus vulgaris and Thymus satureioides EO, except Candida dubliniensis which was inhibited by Thymus satureioides EO from the commune of Azrou with a MIC = 18.75 μg/ml. The correlation determined between the major components and MIC showed that phenols have the strongest positive effects on antimicrobial properties, followed by terpenes and non-aromatic alcohols. In addition, different sensitivities of pathogens to chemical families have been observed against Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter koseri, Candida parapsilosis, Staphylococcus aureus multiresistant, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Aspergillus niger. Our results support the idea that these oils could be very useful in flavoring, food preservation, as well as a source of antimicrobial agents of great power against multidrug-resistant strains.

Unraveling the Phytochemistry, Traditional Uses, and Biological and Pharmacological Activities of Thymus algeriensis Boiss. & Reut

Growing concern for public health has increased the need to change the paradigm towards a healthcare system that advocates holistic practices while reducing adverse effects. Herbal therapy is becoming an integral part of the therapeutic arsenal, and several successful plant-derived compounds/molecules are being introduced into the market. The medicinal plants belonging to the genus Thymus are among the most important species within the Lamiaceae family. One of them is Thymus algeriensis which is mainly distributed in the Mediterranean region. For a long time, this species has been used in traditional medicine to treat several disorders and diseases including inflammation, diabetes, rheumatism, digestive, and respiratory affections. This review describes the traditional uses, phytochemical composition, and biological and pharmacological activities of T. algeriensis extracts. Data were obtained using electronic databases such as SciFindern, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Web of Science. Several plant-based extracts and a broad spectrum of identified secondary metabolites were highlighted and discussed with respective activities and modes of action. T. algeriensis represents a promising natural resource for the pharmaceutical industry mainly for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. Considering these findings, more research is needed to transmute the conventional uses of T. algeriensis into scientifically sound information. Moreover, extensive preclinical, clinical, toxicological, and pharmacokinetic trials on this species and its derivatives compounds are required to underpin the mechanisms of action and ensure its biosafety and efficiency. This comprehensive review provides a scientific basis for future investigations on the use of T. algeriensis and derived compounds in health maintenance and promotion and disease prevention.

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities of Thymus broussonetii Boiss and Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmann and Link Essential Oils

Thymus capitatus and Thymus broussonnetii are two Moroccan endemic medicinal plants used traditionally by the local population. The present study aims to investigate their essential oil chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities. The chemical composition of the essential oils was determined using the GC-MS analysis, the antioxidant activity assessed using DPPH and FRAP methods while the antimicrobial activity was evaluated against nine bacteria species tested (Enterococcus faecalis, Serratia fonticola, Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella oxytoca, sensitive Klebsiella pneumoniae, sensitive Escherichia coli, resistant Escherichia coli, resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Enterobacter aerogenes). The major identified compounds of T. capitatus essential oil where carvacrol (75%) and p-cymene (10.58%) while carvacrol (60.79%), thymol (12.9%), p-cymene (6.21%) and γ-terpinene (4.47%) are the main compounds in T. broussonnetii essential oil. The bioactivity of the essential oils of the two species of thyme was explained by their richness in oxygenated monoterpenes known for their great effectiveness with an IC₅₀ of 3.48 ± 0.05 and 4.88 ± 0.04 μL/mL and EC₅₀ of 0.12 ± 0.01 and 0.20 ± 0.02 μL/mL in the DPPH and FRAP assays, respectively, with an important antibacterial activity. These results encourage the use of these plants as a source of natural antioxidants, and antibacterial additives, to protect food from oxidative damage and to eliminate bacteria that are responsible for nosocomial infections.

Cedrus atlantica (Endl.) Manetti ex Carrière Essential Oil Alleviates Pain and Inflammation with No Toxicity in Rodent

Cedrus atlantica (Endl.) Manetti ex Carrière is an endemic tree with spiritual value, and it was used since immemorial time in folk medicine. The present study aims to evaluate the anti-inflammatory (carrageenan-induced paw edema and formalin tests) and analgesic effects (hot plate and acetic acid writhing tests) of the cedarwood essential oil, as well as inspect any toxicity (acute toxicity), using several in vivo assays. Following the acetic acid writhing test and the hot plate test, the EO presented an excellent analgesic effect compared to the controls, especially with the dose of 50 mg/kg. Similar results were found while assessing the anti-inflammatory potential in the carrageenan-induced paw edema and formalin assays. The acute toxicity assessment and the subsequent monitoring of the animals, the biochemical analysis, and the relative organ weight, demonstrated a total safety of the EO. The GC/MS analysis of the composition revealed that the major compounds contained in this EO are beta-himachalene (51.95%), followed by alpha-himachalene (15.82%), and gamma-himachalene (12.15%). This study supports the usage of this tree EO to alleviate pain and inflammation.